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Transcript
What was the Legacy of Thatcherism for the Criminal Justice System in England & Wales? Stephen Farrall (Centre for Criminological Research, Sheffield Univ). April 2017, Pint of Science, Sheffield. Who was Margaret Thatcher? • Leader of the Conservative Party 1975-90. • PM of the UK 1979-90. • Either “the saviour of the nation” OR “the Devil incarnate” depending on your political beliefs! Which policies are we most interested in? • Economic policies • Housing policies • Social security (esp. after 1986) • Education policies (esp. after 1988) Figure 1: Unemployment Rate (%), 1970-2006 Thatcher’s period in office Major’s period in office Economic Changes This in turn led to increases in levels of inequality (Figure 2), augmented by changes in taxation policies which favoured the better off. Figure 2: Income Inequality (Gini coefficient), 1970-2006 Thatcher’s period in office Major’s period in office The Economy and Crime in Post-War Britain • We find statistically significant relationships for: 1: the unemployment rate on the rate of property crime (more unemployment = more property crime), 2: we also find that the crime-economy link strengthened during this period. 3: (economic inequality just outside bounds of significance). Housing Policy • 1980 Housing Act (+ others): created RTB – saw a huge rise in owner-occupation. • Created residualisation of council housing; transient/marginalised residents with low levels of employment. • Contributed to concentration of social and economic need ... • … and then to the concentration of crime. Social Security • 1980-1985: Some tinkering with the DHSS. • 1986 Social Security Act based on Fowler Review (1984). • Following this payments reduced for many individual benefits claimants (whilst total spend increased due to unemployment). • We find that increases in welfare spending are associated with declines in the property crime rate. (More spending = less crime). Education • ‘Choice’ agenda encouraged schools to exclude poorly performing children to improve league table position. • Exclusions rose, reaching a peak of 12,668 in 199697. • Increased Anti-Social Behaviour (HO RDS Occ. Paper 71). • Brit. Crime Survey shows a sudden increase in people reporting “teens hanging around” to be a problem from an average of 8% before 2001 to 30% after 2002. • School exclusions helped to create Labour’s discourse of ASB and need for C&DA 1998. What happened to crime (etc)? • Rise in crime (Fig 3). This was generally rising before 1979, but the rate of increase picked up after early 1980s and again in early 1990s. • Fear of crime rises (Fig 4). • Levels of punitive sentiment rise (Fig 5). • Changes in priorities for Govt. spending (Fig 6). Figure 3: Property Crime Per Capita (Home Office Recorded Statistics and BCS) Thatcher’s period in office Major’s period in office Figure 4: Percentage worried about crime (BCS 1982-2005) Thatcher’s period in office Major’s period in office Fig 5: Punitive opinion* (excluding the death penalty) and recorded crime in England and Wales, 1980-2013 Thatcher’s period in office Major’s period in office *Based on eight CSE&W and BSAS items relating to sentencing, CJS doing a good job, obeying the law (but excluding those relating to the death penalty). Figure 6: Shifting Social Attitudes (BSAS) Developments post-1993 • Michael Howard (Home Sec 1993-97) talks and acts tough. • Prison population rises immediately; rise in average sentence lengths. • Due also to stricter enforcement and mandatory minimum sentences (aimed at burglars and drug traffickers). • Prison population grew by 2.5% p.a. from 1945 to 1995, but by 3.8% p.a. 1995-2009 (MoJ, 2009: 4). Numbers of Prisoners Prison Popn 1970-2013 1970 1980 1990 year 2000 1970: 39028 Average Prison Popn (Key years): 1979: 42220 1993: 44552 1994: 48621 2010 2013: 84249 Thatcher’s CJS Legacy Signifiers of Punitiveness 82 Acts (by year of enactment) 84 85 86 88 91 93 94 96 97 98 Decreases in punitiveness Limits to the use of imprisonment T1 Increased rights for suspects Limits to police powers Empty! Diverting cases away from Crown Courts Decreases in actual levels of imprisonment Increases in punitiveness Increased post-prison release/community controls Increases in police powers/resources Right to silence questioned or amended Increases in sentence lengths/imprisonment Mandatory sentences (or similar provisions) Changes to the burden of proof T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Unduly lenient sentences can be appealed ‘Failure to respond’ used in sentencing Increases in actual levels of imprisonment More ways of being punitive Increases in youth imprisonment Changes to case disclosure Limits to the use of bail Limits to the decision-making of parole boards Automatic life sentences Blurring of civil and criminal law 82 84 85 86 88 91 93 94 96 97 98 Our Modelling … … suggests that the rate of incarceration has a negative impact on the property crime rate. (More prison = less crime). BUT Improving economy also played a part. Labour Party’s Response • Move to the political right. • ‘Tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime’. • Focus on ‘young offenders’ (related to School Exclusions/ and >ASB?). • Did not oppose Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 despite it being quite draconian (‘3 strikes’, minimum mandatory sentences). Conclusion • Thatcherism was a mix of both neo-liberal and neo-conservative instincts. • Changes which were driven by neo-liberal instincts (housing, employment, social security and education) led to rises in crime. • Rises in crime increased punitiveness amongst public/politicians (and with a neoconservative mind-set this meant ‘tougher’ prison sentences). Conclusion • Crime rise in 1980s-1990s; changes in public sentiments about crime in 1990s and early 2000s; and a ‘toughened’ CJS. • The creation of a new ‘consensus’ on crime. • Needed shift in Labour’s stance on crime for this to ossify. Keeping in Touch • WEBPAGE: http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/law/research/projects/crimetrajectories (Links to papers, talks, documentary film we’ve made, future activities) • EMAIL NEWSLETTER: ([email protected]) • TWITTER: @Thatcher_Legacy