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Real Time PCR Basic Theory & Experiment Design Summary •Real Time Basic Theory •Experiment Design & optimization The PCR Process Denaturation Primer Annealing Elongation 3’ 5’ 5’ 3’ Taq 3’ 5’ 5’ 3’ Taq Repeat In theory, product accumulation is proportional to 2n, where n is the number of amplification cycle repeats Theory vs. Reality Log Target DNA Theoretical Real Life Exponential increase is limited Linear increase follows exponential Eventually plateaus Real Time PCR utilizes fluorescence detection technology to allow us to monitor a reaction while it is occurring. How is quantitative data collected? Quantitative information comes from monitoring the early stages of amplification Log Target DNA Theoretical Detector Real Life Cycle # Real-Time PCR Process In real-time PCR reactions, fluorescent molecules are used to monitor the reaction while amplification is taking place. Detection Chemistries (检测中的化学荧光染料) Real-Time PCR Detection •These fluorescent molecules can be –Non-specific DNA binding dyes • SYBR® Green I –Specific Hybridization Probes/Primers • TaqMan™ • Molecular Beacons • Dual-oligo FRET pairs • Scorpions™/Amplifluor™ /LUX™ DNA Binding Dyes Intercalating Dyes are inexpensive compared to hybridization probes. A dye based strategy allows one to get a general confirmation of amplification. SYBR Green, is a more sensitive intercalating dye SYBR Green I fluoresces 1000 times more brightly when bound to dsDNA DNA Binding Dyes 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ d.NTPs Primers Add iQ SYBR™ Green Supermix, Primers & Sample SYBR Green I Thermal Stable DNA Polymerase Denaturation l Taq SG Annealing DNA Binding Dyes 3’ 5’ 5’ 3’ Extension 3’ SG Extension Continued 5’ SG Taq l SG 3’ l SG SG 5’ SG l l Apply Excitation Wavelength SG Taq 3’ Taq SG SG SG Taq5’ 3’ l Repeat DNA Binding Dyes Advantages Inexpensive compared to hybridization probes No additional design work than the primer used for PCR reaction Disadvantages Not template specific, will bind ALL double stranded DNA inducing primer-dimer and unspecific amplicon formation Multiplex assays not possible DNA Binding Dyes Typical “first step” experiment: • Evaluate Primer Specificity • Using Melt Curve Analysis • Evaluate Primer Pair Efficiencies By running serial dilutions of template as standards • Identify Sub-Optimal aspects of assay Optimize further with thermal gradient, etc. TaqMan® 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ d.NTPs Primers Thermal Stable DNA Polymerase R 5’ Probe Q 3’ Denaturation Add iQ Supermix, Hybridization Probe and Sample Taq l R 5’ Annealing Q 3’ TaqMan® Q R 5’ 3’ R Q Primer Extension R Taq 5’ 3’ R Q Cleavage Taq 5’ 3’ 5’ R Taq Polymerization 5’ 3’ 5’ l R Taq Detection 5’ 5’ 3’ TaqMan Probes Advantages •Generates a robust cumulative fluorescence signal •Simple to design and synthesize compared to other hybridization probes (i.e. beacons) •Ideal approach for multiplex assays •SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) assay possible Disadvantages •More expensive than DNA binding dyes Commonly Used Fluorescent Probes 78% TaqMan probes 19% Molecular Beacons 15% FRET probes LUX fluorogenic primers 9% 9% MGB Eclipse probes Other Scorpion probes 0% 3% 2% 10% Detection Chemistries 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% Which Chemistry To Use? • Each method has advantages and disadvantages • Bio-Rad Real-Time Instrumentation is equipped to handle all chemistries (CFX 96 is optimized for FRET ) • One method may be more appropriate for an application over another Dye/Quencher selection •Select dyes with excitation/emission maxima compatible with the excitation/detection ranges of the instrument. •Select the appropriate quencher for each dye •Select non-fluorescent quenchers (e.g. BHQs, Dabcyl) instead of TAMRA •Preferentially select dyes with good performance (usually indicated by high extinction coefficients and quantum yields) •When multiplexing, strive for minimal spectral overlap between dyes •Label your least abundant target with the best performing dye (usually FAM) What is Threshold Cycle (CT)? The point at which the fluorescence rises appreciably above background Threshold Cycle, CT • Correlates strongly with the starting copy number • Is linear with the log of starting copy number Which one The least? has the most? Threshold Cycle, CT Of the same 96 replicates shows nearly identical values End-point vs. Real-Time Lockey et al. (1998) Biotechniques 24:744-6 Threshold Cycle, CT, is a reliable indicator of initial copy number Copy Number vs. Ct - Standard Curve 40 y = -3.3192x + 39.772 R2 = 0.9967 35 30 Ct 25 r = is a measure of how well the actual data fit to the standard curve. 20 = (explained variation/total variation) 15 The slope of the standard curve can be directly correlated to the efficiency of the reactions: 10 5 Efficiency () = [10(-1/slope) ] - 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Log of copy number (10 n) 8 9 10 11 Standard Curve Real time PCR 108 T 106 104 102 Real time PCR 105 copies/well Real-Time Assay Options •As with all real-time qPCR, analysis options include –Absolute Quantitation –Relative Quantitation • Using Standard Curve • Using Algorithm (e.g. 2-DDCt ) •Most gene expression analyses are interested in relative expression (i.e. comparing expression in one sample to another) Relative Quantification Methods • Δ Ct method: (no reference gene) • Δ Δ Ct method: (reference gene,same efficiency) • Pfaffl modification: (reference gene and efficiency) • Vandesompele: (Multiple reference gene) ΔCt Tissue #1: GOI 22 Tissue #2: 24 Δ Ct: Fold induction = 22 = 4 24-22 = 2 (2-ΔΔCt) Reference Tissue #1: 21 GOI 22 Tissue #2: 24 20 Δ Ct #1: Delta Δ Ct #2: 2nd Delta Δ Δ Ct: 1st Fold induction = 23 = 8 22-21 = 1 24-20 = 4 4-1 = 3 Problem with the Δ Δ CT Ct 24 22 90% Starting quantity Ct 24 22 90% 100% Starting quantity Relative Quantification (CT GOI (control) - CT GOI (sample) ) EGOI Relative Expression = (sample) (CT REF (control) - CT REF (sample)) EREF GOI = Gene of Interest REF = Reference Gene Pfaffl method Primer set #1Reference (From Standard curve) Primer set #2 GOI Tissue #1: 21 22 Tissue #2: 20 24 Efficiency: 90% = 1.9 Delta Ct: 20-21 = -1 100% = 2 24-22 = 2 deltaCt target (24-22 = 2) 2target Fold induction = deltaCt reference (20-21 = -1) 1.9reference 4 = 0.53 = 7.5 Δ Ct method: (no reference gene) Fold induction : 4 Δ Δ Ct method: (reference gene,same efficiency) Fold induction : 8 Pfaffl modification: (reference gene and efficiency) Fold induction : 7.5 Use of reference (normalizer) genes •Used to control for differences between samples: –Amount of starting material (RNA isolation) –Efficiency of cDNA synthesis –Overall transcriptional activity of tissues or cells •Normalizes target gene so that it is expressed as number of copies per copy of reference gene, rather than absolute copy number An ideal reference gene •Should not vary in expression in the tissues or cells under investigation •Should not vary in expression in response to experimental treatment •Must be validated for each assay Commonly Used Reference Genes Use of Multiple Reference Genes Normalization Factor (NF) About cDNA Synthesis • Reverse transciption of mRNA to cDNA • A number of priming options –Random oligos (e.g. random hexamers) • Primes all RNA (not just mRNA); non-specific • Can overestimate mRNA copy numbers • Creates a cDNA pool for multiple, subsequent experiments • Allows analysis of multiple targets –Oligo dTs • Primes only mRNA; hybridizes to 3’ poly A tail • Requires high quality, full length RNA • More specificity than random oligos • Creates a cDNA pool for multiple, subsequent experiments • Allows analysis of multiple targets –Gene-specific primers • Most specific option; primes only RNA for the gene of interest • Highest yield of specific product • Requires separate priming reaction for each target Reverse Transcriptases MMLV (Moloney Murine Reverse Transcriptase): • Lower activity temp; 37 C • Lower intrinsic Rnase H activity • Better for full length or longer cDNAs (making libraries) AMV (Avian Myoblastosis Virus): • More robust than MMLV • Higher intrinsic Rnase H activity • Higher activity temp 41 C • Eliminates problems with RNA secondary structure Tth (Thermus thermophilus): • Both RT and DNA polymerase • High activity temp, 68-74 C • Significantly less efficient than either above About HRM Intercalation Chemistries SYBR™ Green I is toxic to PCR, so concentration used is very low Unsaturated binding allows dye to relocate as melting begins Saturating dye technology for HRM - SYBR® Green I LCGreen™ I, EVA Green, Syto 9 Saturation dyes are less toxic, so concentration used can be high enough to allow all sites to be saturated Saturation eliminates potential for dye relocation-ideal for HRM LC Green™ I HRM Profile 0.02deg Data Acquisition •Melting curves-normalized by selecting linear regions before and after the melting transition •Two regions defined-upper 100% double stranded and lower single stranded baseline Homoduplexes C or T C T G A Homozygotes represented by a single base change are differentiated by a difference in Tm melt. Heteroduplex C>T C T T C A G + A G + C T + A G Heterozygotes form heteroduplexes, the heterozygote (blue) trace is a mix of 4 duplexes SOFTWARE: Normalised HRM data Wild typ e s (C a lle le ) Muta nts (T a lle le ) He te ro zyg o te s •ACTN3 (R577X) (C—T). •10 replicates. •40 cycle fast (~34 min). Real-Time PCR: Applications Real-Time reaction monitoring provides information for relative or quantitative measurements of starting material. Gene Expression Studies Microarray Validation Transgenic Analysis GMO Testing Viral/Bacterial Load Studies Molecular Diagnostics Allelic Discrimination Experimental Design How to Obtain Exceptional Real-Time PCR Results What makes a good PCR reaction? •Good Laboratory Practices •Good Primer/Probe Design •Good Amplicon Design •High Quality Template •Optimal Reagent Concentrations •Good Instrument Performance •Optimal Cycling Protocols •Good Experimental Design – Controls, Replicates, Standards, Testing Assumptions What makes a good PCR reaction? •Good Laboratory Practices •Good Primer/Probe Design •Good Amplicon Design •High Quality Template •Optimal Reagent Concentrations •Good Instrument Performance •Optimal Cycling Protocols •Good Experimental Design – Controls, Replicates, Standards, Testing Assumptions General Laboratory Practices •Use clean bench (hood) •Wear gloves •Use screwcap tubes •Use aerosol-resistant filter tips •Use calibrated pipettes dedicated to PCR •Use large volumes (>5ml) •Use PCR-grade water •Use a hot-start polymerase •Use master mixes •Pipette only once into each tube Same Reagents, Different Hands Cycle Good Technique Cycle Poor Technique Experiment Design •Primer/probe design (Target/Reference) •Validation by SYBR Green ,for primer/probe efficiency / specificity/ reproducibility •Standards preparation What makes a good PCR reaction? •Good Laboratory Practices •Good Primer/Probe Design •Good Amplicon Design •High Quality Template •Optimal Reagent Concentrations •Good Instrument Performance •Optimal Cycling Protocols •Good Experimental Design – Controls, Replicates, Standards, Testing Assumptions Good Primer/Amplicon Design •Maximizes reaction efficiency •Maximizes specificity •Maximizes yield/sensitivity •Minimizes non-specific amplification •Minimizes cross-reactivity in multiplex reactions Accurate, Reproducible Results Real-Time PCR Primer Design •Targets an amplicon length of 70 to 400bp (70~150bp for probe-based assays,100~400bp for SYBR Green) •30 to 80% overall GC content(ideally 50-60%) •Maintain a melting temperature (Tm) between 50 and 65ºC •DTm (difference in Tm between FWD and REV primers) should be less than 2oC Real-Time PCR Primer Design •Limit stretch of G ’s or C’s longer than 3 bases •Limit secondary structure •No stable interactions between primers (primer/dimer) •Place C’s and G’s on ends of primers, but no more than 2 in the last 5 bases on 3’ end •Always BLAST your primers (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast/) Real-Time PCR Probe Design • • • • • Probe length should be between 18 and 30 bp (ideally 20 bp) GC content of probe should be 30-80% (ideally 40-60%) Tm of probe should be 10oC higher than primers 3’ end of primer and 5’ end of probe on same strand between 1-10 bp distance Avoid secondary structure in the complementary region of the probe Real-Time PCR Probe Design • • • Avoid runs of > 3 identical nucleotides (especially G’s) within the probe Avoid G’s at the 5’ end of the probe sequence Use oligo analysis tools to check probe for: dimerization,secondary structure,cross reactivity with primers To verify good primer/amplicon design… •Test primers with SYBR Green I –Efficiency By running serial dilutions of template as standards –Reproducibility By running replicates of some definite templates –Specificity Using Melt Curve Analysis •Run agarose gel –Specificity To verify good primer/amplicon design… •Run SYBR Green assay using validated positive control for template (e.g. plasmid containing GOI) •Include negative (no template) control •Set up dilution series with 3-4 orders of magnitude •Range of concentrations should include expected target concentration •Run reactions in triplicate •Run Melting Curve analysis Internet resource Check for existing qPCR primers •Real Time PCR Primer Sets • http://www.realtimeprimers.org/ •PrimerBank • http://pga.mgh.harvard.edu/primerbank/index.html •RT Primer DB • http://medgen.ugent.be/rtprimerdb/ •Quantitative PCR Primer Database (QPPD) • http://lpgws.nci.nih.gov/cgi-bin/PrimerViewer Find Target Sequence •Entrez Gene (NCBI) •http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Gene •Ensembl Genome Browser (Sanger Institute/European Bioinformatics Institute) •http://www.ensembl.org/ •Sequence Server (Dolan DNA Learning Center) •http://www.dnalc.org/sequences/ • Design Primers/Probes • Primer 3 (Whitehead Institute, MIT) • http://frodo.wi.mit.edu/cgi-bin/primer3/primer3_www.cgi • GeneFisher (Bielefeld University) • http://bibiserv.techfak.uni-bielefeld.de/cgibin/gf_submit?mode=STARTUP&qid=na&sample=dna • Fast PCR (Biocenter, University of Helsinki) • http://www.biocenter.helsinki.fi/bi/bare-1_html/oligos.htm • • PerlPrimer (Owen Marshall) • http://perlprimer.sourceforge.net/ • Primer Design Assistant (Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, National Health Research Institutes) • http://dbb.nhri.org.tw/primer/ How to Prepare Serial Dilutions Stock Concentration of Plasmid = 108 copies/ml, 100ul • Remove 10ul from 108 tube and add to the tube marked 107 • Vortex and remove 10ul from 107 tube and add to the tube marked 106, etc. Each tube contains 90ml H20 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 How to Prepare Replicates •Pipet enough template into one tube for the number of replicates you plan to run •Add enough master mix to the replicate tube •Vortex and spin before aliquoting into the experimental plate or tubes •Pipet only once into wells or tubes Validation with SYBR Green •Check reaction efficiency, E, using standard curve •Check reproducibility/linearity using R value •Check specificity using Melting Curve •Check for contamination using NTC Reaction Efficiency, E • If efficiency is perfect (i.e amount of PCR product doubles each cycle), E=2 • Calculate E using the slope of standard curve: E=10-1/slope • To calculate efficiency as a percentage: % Efficiency =(E - 1) x 100% Reaction Efficiency, E E=10-1/slope = 10-1/-3.394 = 1.971 % Efficiency =(1.971 - 1) x 100% = 97.1% Causes of Efficiencies <90% •Poor primer/amplicon design –Non-specific amplification –Primer dimers –Secondary structure •Non optimal cycling protocols –Annealing temperature too high (gradient optimization) –Extension time too short •Non optimal reagent concentrations –Primers, polymerase, dNTPs, MgCl2 •PCR Inhibitors •Inaccurate pipettes •Poor laboratory procedures Maximizing Efficiency Primer Location Reverse primer A Forward Primer 110 1 Reverse Primer A = 66.3 % Maximizing Efficiency Reverse Primer B Reverse primer B = 95.8 % 2nd generation 85 bp amplicon Forward Primer 110 1 Causes of Efficiencies >110% •Poor primer design –Non-specific amplification •Poor dilution series preparation •Inaccurate pipettes •Poor pipetting •Dynamic range too large for limits of reaction Assay Optimization by Real-Time Gradient PCR Gradient feature can be used to optimize primer and/or probe annealing conditions! Assay Optimization by Real-Time Gradient PCR Validation with SYBR Green •Check reaction efficiency, E, using standard curve •Check reproducibility/linearity using R value •Check specificity using Melting Curve •Check for contamination using NTC Reproducibility/Linearity The correlation coefficient, R (iQ software) are indicators of how well the data points fit the standard curve Reproducibility/Linearity •R range from 0 to 1. •If all data points lie perfectly on the line, value will be 1. •R values are dependent on amount of variation and sample size. •With 6 samples x 3 replicates: –R should be 0.992 or higher Validation with SYBR Green •Check reaction efficiency, E, using standard curve •Check reproducibility/linearity using R value •Check specificity using Melting Curve •Check for contamination using NTC Specificity •Single, well-defined peak in melting curve •No amplification in negative control •Verify specificity by running an agarose gel What makes a good PCR reaction? •Good Laboratory Practices •Good Primer/Probe Design •Good Amplicon Design •High Quality Template •Optimal Reagent Concentrations •Good Instrument Performance •Optimal Cycling Protocols •Good Experimental Design – Controls, Replicates, Standards, Testing Assumptions DNA Template •The source of template affects the accessibility of the target and must be considered during optimization •It is important to optimize the reaction for the template concentrations that will be used in your experiment DNA Template •Genomic DNA (Intact, high MW DNA) –Cut with a restriction enzyme that does not cut region to be amplified –Boil DNA stock for 10 minutes and place immediately on ice •Plasmid DNA –If there are problems with amplification, linearize the plasmid with a restriction enzyme that does not cut within the target •cDNA –RNA must be free from genomic DNA contamination. Treat with RNAse-free DNase prior to reverse transcription. –Design primers at splice junctions to avoid genomic DNA amplification. –Ensure optimal, reproducible efficiency of RT reaction What makes a good PCR reaction? •Good Laboratory Practices •Good Primer/Probe Design •Good Amplicon Design •High Quality Template •Optimal Reagent Concentrations •Good Instrument Performance •Optimal Cycling Protocols •Good Experimental Design – Controls, Replicates, Standards, Testing Assumptions Optimal Reagent Concentrations •Primer Concentrations: –100~600nM(start with 300nM) –50~300nM(start with 150nM) for SYBR Green •Probe Concentrations: –50~300nM(start with 200nM) •Mg++ concentration: –3.5~5.5mM(start with 5mM) –1.5~3.5mM(start with 2.5mM) for SYBR Green What makes a good PCR reaction? •Good Laboratory Practices •Good Primer/Probe Design •Good Amplicon Design •High Quality Template •Optimal Reagent Concentrations •Good Instrument Performance •Optimal Cycling Protocols •Good Experimental Design – Controls, Replicates, Standards, Testing Assumptions Controls • Always include a positive control AND a negative control • Controls, like samples, should be run in replicate • Positive control –sample with predictable results –demonstrates that assay works –prevents “false negatives” from PCR inhibition (especially in +/- pathogen detection assays) • Negative control –usually no template control –tests for contamination –if doing RT real-time PCR, include no RT controls to check for contamination by genomic DNAReplicates • Real-time reactions should be run in replicate • Ideally samples (and controls and standards) should be run in triplicate • Acceptable variation between replicates depends on the mean and number of samples • As a general rule, variation should be less than 0.5 Ct (ideally less than 0.25 Ct) • To obtain good replicates: –Prepare a master mix with all reaction components, including the sample. –Use a hot start enzyme to prevent nonspecific amplification during preparation –Pipette once per well Standards •Appropriate template for standards includes: • Plasmid containing gene of interest • PCR product • Synthetic oligo • Positive control sample • For Gene Expression assays: –cDNA from gene of interest –Genomic cDNA •Standards should be quantified independently (e.g. UV Spectrophotometry, VersaFluor) Standards •A standard curve should include at least 5 different concentrations •“Unknown” samples should fall within the limits of the standard curve; if they are outside the minimum/maximum standard concentration, quantification may not be accurate •To quantify an unknown sample using a standard curve, the assumption is that the reaction efficiency of the standards is the same as the sample. •It is NOT appropriate to import a standard curve from a different assay Multiplexing Fluor selection 490/530 575/620 635/680 5000 Cy5 0 5000 FAM™ 0 5000 Texas Red™ 0 Multiplexing Testing primers dynamic thermal gradient •Primers must amplify under the same conditions. •Test primers with gradient concurrently to determine their actual annealing temperatures. •Adjust annealing temp of primers by increasing and reducing their length. Multiplexing Gene A Gene B Multiplexing Mix of two primer sets without template Not an optimal condition for multiplexing! Temperature Gradients Gene A Gene B Concentration Differences 105 - 102 copies of GAPDH alone 105 - 102 copies of GAPDH with 109 copies of a-tubulin Limiting Primers 105 - 102 copies GAPDH alone GAPDH primers = 250 nM 105 - 102 copies GAPDH with 109 copies of a-tubulin GAPDH primers = 250 nM a-tubulin primers = 25 nM0 Additional Reagents r = 0.979 slope = -4.542 h=66% 2X enzyme, 2X dNTP, & Mg+2 r = 0.999 slope = -3.361 Standard 1X conditions h=98% 3X enzyme, 2X dNTP, & Mg +2 ~ Equal Efficiencies Multiplexing Verifying Multiplex Reactions: Singleplex vs. Fourplex β-actin OAZ 17.0 ± 0.0 20.8 ± 0.1 17.3 ± 0.1 20.8 ± 0.2 Cycle ODC AZI 23.0 ± 0.2 22.2 ± 0.1 23.1 ± 0.2 22.2 ± 0.1