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Lesson 33 Regular Comparison of Adjectives 3 degrees – positive (strong), comparative (stronger), superlative (strongest) Comparative – Add –ior (masc + fem) and –ius (neut) to stem Ex. potens – potentior, potentius Declined like 3rd declension Superlative – Add –issimus, -issima, -issimum to stem Ex. potens – potentisimus, -a, -um Declined like 1st/2nd declension Comparison Quam used like “than” in English to join 2 words which are being compared Word following quam must be in same case as word with which it is being compared Ex. Romani diligentiores quam Germani erant. The Romans were more diligent than the Germans. Ablative of Comparison When noun or pronoun is compared and it is in nom. or acc., quam can be omitted and second noun can be put into abl. Ex. Romani diligentiores Germanis erant. The Romans were more diligent than the Germans. Translation of Comparative and Superlative – Comparative can be translated as too or rather Ex. Hic mons est altior. This mountain is higher This mountain is too high This mountain is rather high Superlative can be translated as very Ex. Hic mons est altissimus. This mountain is the highest This mountain is most high This mountain is very high Lesson 34 Comparison of Adjectives in –er All adjectives which end in –er in masc. nom. sing. form superlative by adding –rimus, -rima, -rimum to masc. nom. sing. form (not stem) – comparative is regular Ex. pulcher – pulchrior, -ius – pulcherrimus, -a, -um Comparison of Adjectives in –eus or –ius Adjectives of 1st or 2nd declension which have i or e before the –us ending use adverbs magis (more) and maxime (most) Ex. idoneus, -a, -um – magis idoneus, -a, -um (more suitable) – maxime idoneus, -a, -um (most suitable) Done to avoid awkwardness (like beautifuler in English) Comparison of Some Adjectives in –ilis Facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis form superlative by adding –limus, -lima, -limum to stem – comparative is regular Ex. facilis, -e – facilior, -ius – facillimus, -a, -um Dative with Adjectives Dative used to complete meaning of some adjectives Ex. Caesar amicus Marco, inimicus Lucio est. Caesar is friendly to Marcus, but unfriendly to Lucius. If adjective is used as a noun it needs genitive Ex. Caesar amicus Marci, inimicus Luci est. Caesar is a friend of Marcus, but an enemy of Lucius. Lesson 36 Comparison of Adverbs Comparative – use neuter acc. sing. of comparative of adjective from which it is derived Ex. celeriter – swiftly Valide – strongly celerius – more swiftly validius – more strongly Superlative – change –us of superlative adjective to –e Ex. celerrimus – celerrime most swiftly Validissimus – validissime most strongly Ablative of Degree of Difference Ablative used adverbially with comparatives, also with ante and post, to express degree of difference Ex. Multo fortius pugnat. – He fights much more bravely (more bravely by much) Quam with the Superlative Quam + superlative = as…as possible Ex. Venite quam primum. Come as soon as possible. Some form of possum is understood, and is sometimes used Temporal and Causal Clauses Clauses introduced by ubi (when) = temporal or introduced by: ut (as, when) or postquam (after) or post (later) or quam (than) or simul atque (as soon as, at the same time as) Clauses introduced by quod (because) = causal or introduced by: ut (as, since) Lesson 37 Demonstrative Adjective Ipse and Idem Ipse myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself (ourselves, yourselves, themselves) see pronoun sheet for declension Idem – the same see pronoun sheet for declension Irregular Adjectives Some 1st and 2nd declension adj. are declined with -ius in gen. and –i in dat. sing. – pl. forms regular alter, altera, alterum – the other (of two), second neuter, neutral, neutrum – neither nullus, -a, -um – no, not any solus, -a, -um – only, alone totus, -a, -um – whole, entire ullus, -a, -um – any uter, utra, utrum – which (of two?) alius, alia, aliud – other, another – declined like above except it has –ud in neuter nom and acc sing. uterque, utraque, utrumque – each (of two) – declined like uter Lesson 38 Subjective and Objective Infinitives Infinitives may be used as nouns Can be subject or direct object of verb ‐ neuter sing. nom. or acc. Ex. Te navigare docebo. I will teach you to sail. I will teach you sailing. Laudari est gratum. It is pleasant to be praised. Being praised is pleasant. Lesson 39 Indirect Statements Used as objects of verbs of thinking, saying, knowing, perceiving, etc. Have an infinitive – subject is in acc (not nom) Ex. Dicit Caesarem esse fortem. He says that Caesar is brave. (He says Caesar to be brave.) No word for “that” introducing the clause Nouns Ablative of Cause Used to express the cause of something Ex. Timore animalium silvam reliquerunt. They left the forest from fear of the animals. Lesson 40 Reflexive Pronouns s pl 3rd person: Gen sui sui Dat sibi sibi Acc se (sese) se (sese) Abl se (sese) se (sese) 1st and 2nd person supplied by ego and tu With cum it is attached – secum Refer to subject of the sentence or clause: Ex. Se vulneravit. – He wounded himself. Reflexive Adjectives Suus, sua, sum Refers back to subject of sentence or clause: Ex. Suum equum in agro est. – His horse is in the field. Dative of Reference Used to show to whose advantage or disadvantage the action of the verb is performed Ex. Habe tibi illud praemium. – Keep that reward for yourself. Dative of Purpose; Double Dative Equites Caesari auxilio erant. – The cavalry served as an aid (were for an aid) to Caesar. Lesson 43 Subjunctive Verbs Horatory Subjunctive (Jussive) Commands can be expressed by present subjunctive Translated as “let” Negative expressed by ne Ex. Captivi huc adducantur – Let the captives be lead here Ne coniciant pedites pila – Let the foot soldiers not throw the javelins. Lesson 44 Adverbial Clause of Purpose Express purpose with subjunctive Present subjunctive used if main verb is present, future, or future perfect Imperfect subjunctive used if main verb is imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect Introduced by ut or ne Ex. Pugnabamus ut urbem defenderemus ‒ We were fighting to defend the city ...so as to defend ...in order to defend ...that we might defend ...so that we might defend ...in order that we might defend Relative Clause of Purpose Introduced by relative pronoun instead of ut Used to show purpose of antecedent, rather than purpose of whole clause Ex. Libri scribuntur quos legamus ‒ Books are written for us to read ...which we may read When purpose contains comparative, clause introduced by quo ‒ ****infinitive NEVER used to express purpose Lesson 45 Indirect Commands (Substantive Clause of Purpose) Verbs of asking, advising, commanding English uses infinitive, Latin uses subjunctive Cases with verbs of asking, advising , commanding used for the object of the verb Dative – impero, mando, persuadeo Ex. Mihi persuasit ut venirem. He persuaded me to come. Accusative – moneo, oro, rogo Ex. Me monuit ne venirem. He warned me not to come. Ablative with a preposition – peto, postulo, quaero Ex. A me petit ut veniam. He is asking me to come. Lesson 46 Clauses of Fearing English uses indirect statement after verbs of fearing, Latin uses subjunctive Affirmative introduced by ne, negative by ne non or ut Ex. Timeo ne veniat. I fear that he is coming. Time ut veniat. I fear that he is not coming. Clause expresses the wish that the person has in mind (Ex. I don’t want him to come) Sequence of Tenses Relationship between main verb and subjunctive verb in a clause Lesson 47 Indirect Questions Introduced by interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb and have verb in subjunctive Ex. Rogat quid faciamus. He asks what we are doing. May also follow verbs of saying, perceiving, knowing, etc. Lesson 50 Deponent Verbs Have passive forms but active meanings Ex. moratur – he delays, conati erant – they had tried PAP, FAP, future active infinitive are active forms Locative Case With names of cities, towns, small islands, domus and rus no preposition used to express place Use a case called locativeLike genitive in singular in nouns of 1st& 2nd dec, otherwise like ablative Rus always and some other 3rd dec sometimes end in –i Ex. ruri – in the country Carthagini – at Carthage Lesson 51 Ablative Absolute 2 words in ablative case 1. noun + participle – (most common) 2. 2 nouns 3. noun + adjective – (rare) Participle and adjective agree with noun in gender, case, number Best translated by a clause – denotes time, cause, condition, concession Ex. Signo dato, oppidum oppugnaverunt. – When the signal had been given, they attacked the town. Caesare imperatore, ad victoriam exercitus ducetur. – If Caesar is general, the army will be led to victory. Periculo magno, Caesar signum dedit. – Since the danger was great, Caesar gave the signal. Future Passive Participle (FPP) 1st / 2nd conjugation add –ndus, -nda, -ndum to present stem Ex – vocandus, vocanda, vocandum 3rd / 4th conjugation add e before ending Ex – regendus, regenda, regendum Gerundive – English uses gerund (verbal noun __ing) – Latin uses FPP modifying a noun 1. Genitive – used with causa or gratia (for the sake of) Veni librorum legendorum causa. I came for the sake of reading books 2. Dative – indirect object Tempus libris legendis dedit. He gave time to reading books 3. Accusative – used with ad (to, toward) Veni ad libros legendos. I came to read books. 4. Ablative – ablative of means Libris legendis didicit. He learned by reading books