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Transcript
Ecology Ecology Definition • Study of the relationships between organisms AND organism and their environment Levels of Organization • Population – All members of a species living in a given location What affects population size? • Density Independent Factors – Independent of # of individuals • • • • • • • drought freezes hurricane floods forest fires Tsunami Volcano eruptions What affects population size? • Density Dependent Factors – Dependent on the # of individuals • Intraspecific competition • Interspecific competition – Compete for ecological niche (food, living space) • • • • Lower birth rate Migration (high density forces people to move) Predation (high density, easier to catch a member) Parasitism (High density, easier transmission) Population Growth • Exponential Growth – constant birth rate – never limited by food or disease, – birth rate alone controls how fast (or slow) the population grows Population Growth • Logistic Growth – food and disease as “limiting factors” – limit to the number of individuals the environment can support. (“Carrying Capacity”) – Population shows logistic growth. Population Growth Strategies • Population Growth Population Growth Strategies R Unstable environment, density independent K Stable environment, density dependent interactions • small size of organism • energy used to make each individual is low • many offspring are produced • early maturity • short life expectancy • each individual reproduces only once • type III survivorship pattern in which most of the individuals die within a short time but a few live much longer •large size of organism •energy used to make each individual is high •few offspring are produced •late maturity, often after a prolonged period of parental care •long life expectancy •individuals can reproduce more than once in their lifetime •type I or II survivorship pattern in which most individuals live to near the maximum life span Back to levels of organization • Community – All interacting populations in a given location • Ecosystem – Community PLUS physical environment • Biosphere – Portion of Earth in which life exists Requirements of Ecosystems • Constant flow of energy into system • Sun to plants to all others • Cycle of materials between living organisms and the environment Components of Ecosystems • Biotic Factors – Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protozoa • Abiotic Factors – Light, temperature, water, minerals, oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, pH How do Biotic Factors Interact? • Nutritional Relationships (the transfer of nutrients from one organism to another) – Autotrophs – Heterotrophs • Saprophytes=live of dead organism matter (mushrooms & other Fungi, some bacteria) • Herbivores • Carnivore – Scavenger (ex. Vulture, Laughing Hyena) – Predator (ex. Lion) • Omnivore How do Biotic Factors Interact? • Symbiotic Relationships (Living Relationships between organisms) – Commensalism How do Biotic Factors Interact? – Mutualism How do Biotic Factors Interact? – Parasitism How do we depict Energy Flow? • Food Chain Decomposers get everyone! How do we depict Energy Flow? • Food Webs More realistic than food chain Classification of “Eaters” • Filter Feeders • Herbivores • Predators • Parasites • Detritivores Energy Pyramid Biomass Pyramid Materials Cycles • Carbon-Oxygen Cycle CO2 also from Burning and Decay Materials Cycles • Water Cycle Transpiration Respiration Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen Cycle • Decomposing Bacteria and Fungi – Convert the dead to Ammonia (NH3) • Nitrifying Bacteria – Convert Ammonia to Nitrites (NO2) and then to Nitrates (NO3)- (ie. Plant Fertilizer) • Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria (In roots of legumes=peas, bean plants) – Convert atmospheric N2 to Ammonia (NH3) • Denitrifying Bacteria – Convert Nitrates to atmospheric N2 How do Ecosystems Form? • Ecological Succession 1. 2. 3. Development of area with Pioneer Organisms (Lichen) Gradual development of more complex ecosystem Reach a stable Climax community or Biome Biomes • Aquatic Biomes – Largest of all Earth’s Ecosystems – 70% of Earth water – Most stable-Why? – Marine – Freshwater – Brackish Marine Biome Marine Intertidal Zone Marine Photic to Aphotic Zones • Deep sea fish Freshwater Biomes • River • Stream • Lake (large+deep) • Pond (shallow) Freshwater Biomes • Marsh – freq. flooding, shallow, few trees • Swamp – low wetland, more open water compared to marsh shrubs+trees • Bogs – shallow, moss, insectivorous plants Brackish Water • Estuary – Rivers meet Ocean – Osmoregulators vs. Osmoconformers Terrestrial biomes Terrestrial Biomes • Tundra – Permanent frozen subsoil – Lichen, moss, grass – Snowy owl, caribou • Taiga – Long bad winters – Soil thaws in summer – Conifers (Pine, Spruce, Fir) – Moose, black bear Terrestrial Biomes • Temperate Deciduous Forest – Moderate precip., cold winters, warm summers – Deciduous trees (drop leavesmaple,oak,) – Fox, deer, squirrel • Tropical Rain Forest (Extreme Biodiversity) – Heavy rain, constant warmth – Broad leaved plants – Snakes, monkeys, leopards Terrestrial Biomes • Grassland – Variable rainfall, variable temps, prevailing winds – Many grasses and wildflowers – Pronghorn antelope, prairie dogs, bison • Desert – Little rain, extreme temp fluctuations – Drought-resistant shrubs and succulent plants Terrestrial Biomes • Savanna – Grasses, few trees, water conserving plants – Warm all year – Zebra, water buffalo, lions, hyena • Chaparral – Mild winter, very hot summers – Prone to fires – Drought resistant shrubs Terrestrial Biomes (Latitude vs. Altitude) Human and the Environment Negative Impact • Urbanization • Over-farming resulting in soil erosion • Over grazing resulting in soil erosion • Use of pesticides – DDT and the Bald Eagles’ eggs (Biomagnification) • Pollution Negative Impact – Water • • • • PCBs and General Electric Eutrophication Thermal pollution Oil spills – Air • Carbon dioxide and Global Warming • CFCs and Ozone layer hole • Acid Rain from sulfur and nitrogen compounds with water vapor • Ground level ozone from exhaust reacting with sunlight – Ground • Dumps and landfills • Lead and Mercury Waste Problem • Nuclear Waste Problem Negative Impact • Technological Oversights • Importation of Pests – – – – – Rabbits in Australia Lampreys in US Gypsy Moth and Hardwood Trees Killer Bees Japanese Beetles and fruits,lawns and flowers • Loss of Rainforest – Affects climate – Reduce Biodiversity • Dams Positive Things • • • • • • • • • • • Recycling Pollution Control Laws Cover Crops Crop Rotation Windbreaks Contour Farming Reforestation Conservation of Resources Biological control Terracing Biomediation