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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization.
Organism Level
All the organ systems must
work together for a person to
remain alive and healthy.
Organ System Level
(Chapters 5–20)
Cardiovascular
Nervous
Endocrine
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Muscular
Integumentary
Digestive
Urinary
Skeletal
The cardiovascular system
includes the heart, blood,
and blood vessels.
Organ Level
Tissue Level
(Chapter 4)
The heart is a complex organ
composed of different tissues.
Cardiac muscle tissue
makes up the bulk of
the walls of the heart.
Cellular Level
(Chapter 3)
Interlocking heart muscle cells
form cardiac muscle tissue.
Chemical Level Contractile protein
(Chapter 2) fibers are structures
within a heart muscle
cell.
Molecules join to form
complex contractile protein
fibers.
Atoms interact
to form
molecules.
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Reproductive
Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (8 of 12)
The Respiratory System
Delivers air to the lungs
where gas exchange
Nasal cavity
occurs between
air and
Pharynx
blood.
Larynx
Lung
Diaphragm
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Trachea
Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (9 of 12)
The Digestive System
Processes food
and absorbs
nutrients
Salivary gland
Pharynx
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Stomach
Large
intestine
Rectum
(part of large intestine)
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Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (10 of 12)
The Urinary System
Eliminates excess
water, salts, and
waste products
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
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Kidney
Ureter
Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (12 of 12)
The Female Reproductive
Produces sex cells
and hormones;
supports
embryonic and
fetal development from
fertilization
to birth
System
Mammary
gland
Fallopian
(Uterine)
tube
Ovary
Uterus
Vagina
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Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (11 of 12)
The Male Reproductive System
Produces sex
cells and
hormones
Prostate
gland
Vas (Ductus)
deferens
Urethra
Testis
Penis
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Midsagittal Section
of Male pelvis
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Midsagittal Section
of Female pelvis
Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (3 of 12)
The Muscular System
Allows for locomotion;
provides support;
produces heat
Axial
muscles
Appendicular
muscles
Tendons
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Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (2 of 12)
The Skeletal System
Provides support; protects tissues; stores
minerals; forms blood cells
Cranium
Skull
Facial bones
Scapula &
clavicle
Sternum
Ribs
Lumbar
Vertebrae
Sacrum
Femur
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Pelvis
Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (1 of 12)
The Integumentary System
Protects against
environmental
hazards; helps
control body
temperature
Hair
Skin
Nails
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Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (6 of 12)
The Cardiovascular System
Transports cells
and dissolved
materials,
including
nutrients,
wastes, and
Heart
gases
Artery
Vein
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Capillaries
Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (7 of 12)
The Lymphatic System
Defends against
infection and
disease; returns
tissue fluid to
the bloodstream
Thymus
Lymph
nodes
Spleen
Lymphatic
vessel
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Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (4 of 12)
The Nervous System
Directs rapid
responses to
stimuli it receives,
coordinating the
activities of other
organ systems
PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Peripheral
nerves
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CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain
Spinal cord
Figure 1-2 The Organ Systems of the Human Body. (5 of 12)
The Endocrine System
Directs long-term
changes in activities
of other organ
systems
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Pancreas
Adrenal
gland
Ovary in
female
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Testis in male
Figure 1-6 Anatomical Landmarks.
Forehead (frontal)
Nasus or nose (nasal)
Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular)
Cranium
or skull
Cephalon
(cranial)
or head
Face
(cephalic)
(facial)
Auris or ear (otic)
Cheek (buccal)
Cervicis or neck (cervical)
Thoracis or
thorax, chest
(thoracic)
Oris or mouth (oral)
Chin
(mental)
Axilla or armpit
(axillary)
Brachium
Or arm
(brachial)
Antecubitis or
front of elbow
(antecubital)
Antebrachium
or forearm
(antebrachial)
Carpus or
wrist (carpal)
Palm
(palmar)
Mamma
or breast
(mammary)
Abdomen
(abdominal)
Cervicis
or neck (cervical)
Shoulder
(acromial)
Dorsum or
back
(dorsal)
Upper
limb
Olecranon
or back
of elbow
(olecranal)
Lumbus or loin
(lumbar)
Manus
or hand
(manual)
Groin
(inguinal)
Pubis
(pubic)
Femur or
thigh (femoral)
Gluteus
or buttock
(gluteal)
Popliteus or
back of knee
(popliteal)
Lower
limb
Calf (sural)
Tarsus or
ankle
(tarsal)
Calcaneus or
heel of foot
(calcaneal)
Pes or foot
(pedal)
Anterior view in the anatomical position
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Trunk
Umbilicus
or navel
(umbilical)
Pelvis
(pelvic)
Pollex
or thumb Digits (phalanges)
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)
Patella
or kneecap
(patellar)
Leg (crural)
Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Hallux or great toe
Cephalon
or head (cephalic)
Planta or
sole of foot (plantar)
Posterior view in the anatomical position
Figure 1-6a Anatomical Landmarks.
Forehead (frontal)
Nasus or nose (nasal)
Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular)
Cephalon
or head
(cephalic)
Cranium
or skull
(cranial)
Face
(facial)
Cheek (buccal)
Cervicis or neck (cervical)
Thoracis or
thorax, chest
(thoracic)
Oris or mouth (oral)
Chin
(mental)
Axilla or armpit
(axillary)
Brachium
or arm
(brachial)
Antecubitis or
front of elbow
(antecubital)
Antebrachium
or forearm
(antebrachial)
Carpus or
wrist (carpal)
Palm
(palmar)
Mamma
or breast
(mammary)
Abdomen
(abdominal)
Umbilicus
or navel
(umbilical)
Pelvis
(pelvic)
Groin
(inguinal)
Pubis
(pubic)
Femur or
thigh (femoral)
Pes or foot
(pedal)
Anterior view in the anatomical position
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Trunk
Manus
or hand
(manual)
Pollex
or thumb Digits (phalanges)
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)
Patella
or kneecap
(patellar)
Leg (crural)
Tarsus or
ankle
(tarsal)
Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Hallux or great toe
Auris or ear (otic)
Figure 1-6b Anatomical Landmarks.
Cephalon
or head (cephalic)
Cervicis
or neck (cervical)
Shoulder
(acromial)
Dorsum or
back
(dorsal)
Upper
limb
Olecranon
or back
of elbow
(olecranal)
Lumbus or loin
(lumbar)
Gluteus
or buttock
(gluteal)
Popliteus or
back of knee
(popliteal)
Lower
limb
Calf (sural)
Calcaneus or
heel of foot
(calcaneal)
Planta or
sole of foot (plantar)
Posterior view in the anatomical position
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Figure 1-8 Directional References.
Superior
Cranial
Right
Left
Proximal
Posterior
or dorsal
Anterior
or ventral
Lateral
Caudal
Medial
Proximal
Distal
Inferior
A lateral view.
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Distal
An anterior view. Arrows indicate important directional terms
used in this text; definitions and
descriptions are given in Table 1-1.
Figure 1-8a Directional References.
Superior
Cranial
Anterior
or ventral
Posterior
or dorsal
Caudal
Inferior
A lateral view.
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Figure 1-8b Directional References.
Superior
Right
Left
Proximal
Lateral
Medial
Proximal
Distal
Inferior
Distal
An anterior view. Arrows indicate important directional terms
used in this text; definitions and
descriptions are given in Table 1-1.
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Figure 1-10 Planes of Section.
Frontal plane
Sagittal plane
Transverse plane
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Figure 1-11a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions.
POSTERIOR
ANTERIOR
Pleural
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Pericardial
cavity
Diaphragm
Peritoneal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
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Abdominopelvic
cavity
A lateral view showing the ventral
body cavity, which is divided by the
muscular diaphragm into a superior
thoracic (chest) cavity and an inferior
abdominopelvic cavity.Three of the
four adult body cavities are shown
and outlined in red; only one of the
two pleural cavities can be shown in
a sagittal section.
Figure 1-11b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions.
POSTERIOR
ANTERIOR
Pleural
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Pericardial
cavity
Visceral
pericardium
Air space
Heart
Pericardial
cavity
Balloon
Parietal
pericardium
The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like
a fist pushed into a balloon.The attachment site,
corresponding to the wrist of the hand, lies at
the connection between the heart and major
blood vessels.The width of the pericardial
cavity is exaggerated here;normally the visceral
and parietal layers are separated only by a thin
layer of pericardial fluid.
Diaphragm
Peritoneal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
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Abdominopelvic
cavity
Figure 1-11c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions.
POSTERIOR
ANTERIOR
Pleural
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Pericardial
cavity
ANTERIOR
Diaphragm
Peritoneal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
Pericardial
cavity
Pleural cavity
Parietal
pleura
Right
lung
Left
lung
Mediastinum
Spinal cord
Abdominopelvic
cavity
POSTERIOR
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A transverse section through the thoracic cavity, showing the
central location of the pericardial cavity. Notice how the mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into two pleural cavities. (Note
that this transverse or cross-sectional view is oriented as though
the observer were standing at the subject’s feet and looking
toward the subject’s head. This is the standard presentation for
clinical images, and unless otherwise noted, sectional views in
this text use this same orientation.)
Figure 1-7a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)
Left Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)
Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four abdominopelvic quadrants
are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel
(umbilicus). The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations,
are most often used in clinical discussions.
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Figure 1-7b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right
hypochondriac
region
Right lumbar
region
Right
inguinal
region
Epigastric
region
Umbilical
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Left lumbar
region
Left inguinal
region
Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic
regions provide more precise regional descriptions.
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Figure 1-7c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Liver
Gallbladder
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Stomach
Spleen
Urinary
bladder
Anatomical relationships. The relationship between the
abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations
of the internal organs are shown here.
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