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Rome
Classical Rome
The Italian Peninsula was settled by Indo-Europeans c. 1500-1000 BC. The Latin people were herders and appropriately
enough spoke Latin. They built huts for refuge atop Rome’s seven hills. The herders likely formed the settlement on high
points as a lookout for invaders or possible for easy location of their herds. History has proven that it is very difficult to
attack an enemy located at higher elevation. Hence the expression “fighting an uphill battle”. Settling hills also limited
their exposure to potential flooding from the nearby Tiber River. Greeks occupied 2/3 of Sicily during their colonization
period (750-550 BC). The Etruscans came from north of Rome c. 650 BC and eventually took control of Rome.
Much like Greece, Ancient Rome was located on a peninsula jutting into the Mediterranean and surrounding Seas. This
resulted in opportunity for Rome to interact with surrounding civilizations precipitating extensive technical and cultural
diffusion. Rome’s geographic position, also like Greece, was conducive to trade and the need for a navy. Rome however
was slow to develop a navy as their ground forces were so overwhelmingly successful. The Apennine Mountains run
through the middle of the Italian Peninsula. Despite the mountainous terrain, there was sufficient arable (farmable) land
on the peninsula to support fairly large population centers. This limited Rome’s dependence on imported food. The
Apennine Mountains are not as rugged or as randomly placed as those of Greece. Consequently, there was more
opportunity for population centers to interact and form centralized governments.
Virtually every society has a group of wealthy landowners. The historical term for these wealthy landowners is
“aristocrat”. Often, these individuals have significant political influence. When they do not, they usually buy it or obtain it
through violence. In the case of Rome the later was true. Aristocrats overthrew the last Etruscan king 509 BC. The new
leadership of Rome was vehemently opposed to rule by a king and advocated res publica a Latin term loosely meaning
public good. Allegedly, in the interest of res publica, a republic type government was installed.
Expansion
Rome was a city-state in an era when military invasions were common place. Societies could either fight or be
conquered. Rome defended itself, but was also an aggressor. C. 338 BC, Rome expanded by defeating the Latin states
in Latium (central part of Italy). They took the Greek areas to the south (264 BC) and eventually the remaining Etruscan
states to the north. The area was joined as a confederation with the Romans behaving pragmatically. In social studies,
the term pragmatic normally alludes to the toleration or allowance for differing cultural, technological, and political
practices. Pragmatic can also mean dealing with things sensibly, realistically, or practically. The Romans allowed
conquered peoples (especially Latins) to become full or partial Roman citizens. The word citizen carries the connotation
of having certain legal privileges associated with a particular geographical region including a nation, country, state, city, or
town. To be a Roman citizen meant to have the rights and privileges such as voting, conducting business, full access to
the justice system, and other forms to government protection and assistance. Freeborn men and women could be
citizens but women did not have all the privileges of men one of which was voting.
The conquered areas were allowed some autonomy but all were required to provide soldiers and pay taxes. By requiring
conquered peoples to serve in the military, the Romans created a snowball effect as they moved across the country side.
Rome evolved into a vast empire of huge geographic proportions. Its pragmatism played a large role in allowing it to
maintain control of conquered areas without having to occupy or decimate.
Laws and Government,
The first Roman code of law was promulgated (proclaimed or issued) 450 BC in the form of the Twelve Tablets. This
original set of laws was developed for an agrarian (agriculturally based) society. A more sophisticated set of laws evolved
but only applied to Roman citizens. As the empire (expansive or fragmented area under control of a centralized authority)
grew the need arose for a broader law. The Law of Nations was designed as a code for everyone. It was designed to be
universal, and was based on reason. Many ideas included in the Law of Nations are still in use. Examples include;
innocent until proven guilty, freedom to defend one’s self, and careful weighing of evidence by the judge. Having a set of
laws to govern society is known as the rule of law. That is to say that the law rules or decides, rather than an individual or
small group of individuals. A consistent outcome related to criminal, domestic, and business issues provides stability.
Decisions left to individuals or small groups may be inconsistent, biased, arbitrary (based on personal choice or whim
rather than reason or a system).
From the time the Etruscan kings were overthrown in 509 BC Romans established a republic (representative type of
government). The citizenship of Rome consisted of the Patricians (wealthy landowners) and the Plebeians (all other free
born citizens). Annually, citizens would elect two individuals to serve as consuls and command the military. They would
also elect 10 tribunes from among the plebeians. The Roman Senate was made up of 300-600 aristocrats appointed for
life by the consuls. There could be an emergency appointment of a ruler titled “dictator” (dicta – law). There were various
councils of Plebeians with some authority but, with few exceptions, Patricians ruled. Although Roman society was
basically ruled by the wealthy land owners, it was a representative type government that allowed for some input from its
citizens.
Religion, Art, and Architecture
In the early and mid-stages of Rome, the traditional state religion involved worship of numerous gods and goddesses that
mirrored those of ancient Greece. Some of the Roman gods included Jupiter, Minerva, Mars, Venus, Diana, Mercury –
Pluto, Neptune, and Vulcan. These gods were associated with various aspects of nature, spirits, and emotions. State
appointed priests were responsible for practicing rituals they hoped would keep favor with the gods. Romans believed
their military triumphs were directly related to their favor with the gods. Ancient Romans believed in an afterlife that
included positive and negative consequences based on one’s behavior on earth. They were tolerant of the religions of the
conquered regions. Hellenistic eastern religious practices that offered a more favorable afterlife and were more emotional
and spiritual appealed to some Roman. Serving and satisfying a large number of gods, (polytheism) may not always be
conducive (helpful or beneficial) to the cohesiveness of a society. There is not one supreme entity for them to worship,
submit to, and obey. The monotheistic (belief in one God) religions of Judaism and Christianity ultimately played
prominently in the rise and fall of the Roman Empire.
During 3rd and 2nd centurieds. B.C. Greek statues became popular. They were placed not only in public places but homes
as well. When originals ran out, reproductions were made. The Romans copied Greek architecture but added their own
ideas of curved lines, arches, domes, and vaults. They were the first to use concrete on a large scale. They built
structures that dwarfed those of the Greeks including the Coliseum in Rome and later the Hippodrome in Constantinople.
They also constructed a road system over 50,000 miles in length. The primary purpose of these roads was military, but
they also functioned as a venue for travel and trade. They installed a aqueducts that provided water for the more than one
million inhabitants of city of Rome.
Extent of Roman Empire
The Romans dethroned the last Etruscan king 509 BC and began their empire as a small city-state located in the central
part of the Italian Peninsula. The city of Rome was located on the Tiber River approximately 18 miles inland from the
Mediterranean Sea. This location gave the Romans easy access to the sea for trade and military purposes, but also
allowed them to monitor and restrict commercial and military access to the city. The original size of the kingdom was less
than 400 square miles.
By 265 BC Rome had conquered and dissolved the Latin League, defeated the Samnites, and fought off the Etruscans
and Guals in the north. While conquering the central portion of the Italian Peninsula, the Romans are said to have
abducted women from their enemies forcing them to intermarry with Roman men. These marriages produced offspring
which resulted in some of Rome’s enemies making peace rather than practicing war against their own people. Rome’s
holdings now consisted of around 116,000 square miles including all of the Italian Peninsula south of the Poe River Valley
giving them control of the entire Italian Peninsula.
The Romans encountered a formidable foe to the south in contemporary North Africa. The people were from the citystate of Carthage and were known as Phoenicians. Carthage was located in the present day country of Tunisia. The
Latin term for Phoenician is punics thus the expression Punic. Between 246 and 202 BC the Romans engaged in two
Punic Wars ending with the defeat of the Phoenicians. Between 148 and 146 BC the Romans decimated Carthage and
also expanded their empire into Greece and Asia. The number 3 on the map associated with this exercise represents the
area gained by Rome during the aforementioned expansion.
Prior to being conquered and destroyed by the Romans, Carthage had ruled the western Mediterranean. Its location in
Northern Africa is represented by the number 3 on the map associated with this exercise.
Rome continued to expand its empire through the era of emperors. In 50 BC the area totaled 752,000 square miles
reaching its zenith in 117 AD at over 3.5 million square miles with a population of 50 – 90 million people.
Areas conquered during the reign of emperors included parts of contemporary Egypt, France, England, Iraq and Iran