Download Chapter 8

2017
Biology Final Exam Preparation
Final Binder Check: by Wednesday
5/24
All late and missing work due by 5/24
• Ref.: Chapter 15 vocabulary
• Notes:
– Chapter 15 notes
– Classification guided notes
– Final Exam study guide
• Test and Quiz: Chapter 12 quizzes one and two
• Daily Work:
–
–
–
–
Chapter 15 study method
Homologous and Analogous structures worksheets
Cladogram practice worksheets
Chapter 17 study method
• Lab and projects
– Frog dissection paragraph writing guides
Chapter 15 Vocabulary
•
•
•
•
•
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Natural selection
Analogous structure
Homologous structure
Vestigial structure
Adaptive radiation
Speciation
Cell Energy (Photosynthesis and Respiration) Notes
Energy:
• Energy for living things comes from food. Originally,
the energy in food comes from the sun.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.1 How Organisms Obtain Energy
ATP: The Unit of Cellular Energy
 ATP releases energy
when the bond between
the second and third
phosphate groups is
broken, forming a
molecule called
adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) and a free
phosphate group.
ATP
• Organisms that use light energy from the sun to
produce food—autotrophs (auto = self)
Ex: plants and some microorganisms (some bacteria
and protists)
• Organisms that CANNOT use the sun’s energy to make
food—heterotrophs
Ex: animals and most microorganisms
Photosynthesis:
• Photosynthesis is the process by which the energy of
sunlight is converted into the energy of glucose
• Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plants
• Light absorbing compound is a pigment—pigments
absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others—
the color our eyes see is the color that the pigment
reflects
• Chlorophyll is the pigment inside the chloroplast the
absorbs light for photosynthesis
As the chlorophyll in leaves decays
in the autumn, the green color fades
and is replaced by the oranges and
reds of carotenoids.
•General formula for photosynthesis
carbon dioxide + water + light
(Reactants)
6CO2 + 6H2O + light
:
glucose + oxygen
(Product)
C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.2 Photosynthesis
Overview of Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis occurs in two phases.
 Light-dependent reactions
 Light-independent reactions
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.2 Photosynthesis
Phase One: Light Reactions
 The absorption of light is the first step in
photosynthesis.
 Chloroplasts capture light energy.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.2 Photosynthesis
Electron Transport
 Light energy excites electrons in
photosystem II and also causes a water
molecule to split, releasing an electron into
the electron transport system, H+ into the
thylakoid space, and O2 as a waste product.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.2 Photosynthesis
 The excited electrons move from
photosystem II to an electron-acceptor
molecule in the thylakoid membrane.
 The electron-acceptor molecule transfers the
electrons along a series of electron-carriers
to photosystem I.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.2 Photosynthesis
 Photosystem I transfers the electrons to a
protein called ferrodoxin.
 Ferrodoxin transfers the electrons to the
electron carrier NADP+, forming the energystoring molecule NADPH.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.2 Photosynthesis
Phase Two: The Calvin Cycle
 In the second
phase of
photosynthesis,
called the Calvin
cycle, energy is
stored in
organic
molecules such
as glucose.
Cellular Respiration: (2 kinds—Aerobic and Anaerobic)
• Cellular respiration is the process by which the energy
of glucose is released in the cell to be used for life
processes (movement, breathing, blood circulation,
etc…)
• Cells require a constant source of energy for life processes but
keep only a small amount of ATP on hand. Cells can regenerate
ATP as needed by using the energy stored in foods like glucose.
• The energy stored in glucose by photosynthesis is released by
cellular respiration and repackaged into the energy of ATP.
• Respiration occurs in ALL cells and can take place
either with or without oxygen present.
Aerobic Respiration: requires oxygen
• Occurs in the mitochondria of the cell
• General formula for aerobic respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2
(Reactants)
glucose + oxygen
6 CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
(Product)
carbon dioxide + water + energy
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.3 Cellular Respiration
Overview of Cellular Respiration
 Organisms obtain energy in a process called
cellular respiration.
 The equation for cellular respiration is the
opposite of the equation for photosynthesis.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.3 Cellular Respiration
 Cellular respiration occurs in two main parts.
 Glycolysis
 Aerobic respiration
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.3 Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis
 Glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm
through the process of glycolysis.
 Two molecules of ATP and two molecules
of NADH are formed for each molecule of
glucose that is broken down.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.3 Cellular Respiration
Krebs Cycle
 Glycolysis has a net result of two ATP and
two pyruvate.
 Most of the energy from the glucose is still
contained in the pyruvate.
 The series of reactions in which pyruvate is
broken down into carbon dioxide is called the
Krebs cycle.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.3 Cellular Respiration
 The net yield from the
Krebs cycle is six
CO2 molecules, two
ATP, eight NADH,
and two FADH2.
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.3 Cellular Respiration
Electron Transport
 Final step in the breakdown of glucose
 Point at which ATP is produced
 Produces 24 ATP
Chapter 8
Cellular Energy
8.3 Cellular Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration
 The anaerobic pathway that follows glycolysis
 Two main types
 Lactic acid fermentation
 Alcohol fermentation
Cellular
Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration:
occurs when no oxygen is
available to the cell (2 kinds: Alcoholic and Lactic Acid)
• Also called fermentation which occurs when cells
release energy from food without using oxygen.
• There are 2 types of fermentation: Alcohol and Lactic
Acid
•Alcoholic fermentation—occurs in bacteria,
yeast, and plants.
•It produces alcohol, carbon dioxide and a small
amount of energy.
• Lactic acid fermentation—occurs in muscle cells
Lactic acid is produced in the muscles during rapid
exercise when the body cannot supply enough oxygen
to the tissues—causes burning sensation in muscles
Chapter 17
Organizing Life’s Diversity
17.1 The History of Classification
Taxonomic Categories
 The taxonomic categories
used by scientists are
part of a nestedhierarchal system.
 Each category is
contained within
another, and they
are arranged from broadest to most specific.
Chapter 17
Organizing Life’s Diversity
17.1 The History of Classification
Higher Taxa are larger groups; more general
characteristics
 An order contains related families.
 A class contains related orders.
 A phylum or division contains related classes.
 The taxon of related phyla or divisions is a
kingdom.
 The domain is the broadest of all the taxa and
contains one or more kingdoms.
Chapter 17
Organizing Life’s Diversity
17.3 Domains and Kingdoms
Chapter 17
Organizing Life’s Diversity
17.1 The History of Classification
Binomial Nomenclature
 Linnaeus’s method of naming organisms,
called binomial nomenclature, gives each
species a scientific name with two parts.
 The first part is the genus name, and the
second part is the specific epithet, or
specific name, that identifies the species.
Chapter 17
Organizing Life’s Diversity
17.1 The History of Classification
 Biologists use
scientific names
for species
because common
names vary in
their use.
Ursus americanus
American black bear
Chapter 17
Organizing Life’s Diversity
17.1 The History of Classification
 When writing a scientific name, scientists use these
rules:
 The first letter of the genus name always is
capitalized, but the rest of the genus name and all
letters of the specific epithet are lowercase.
 If a scientific name is written in a printed book or
magazine, it should be italicized.
 When a scientific name is written by hand, both parts
of the name should be underlined.
 After the scientific name has been written
completely, the genus name will be abbreviated to
the first letter in later appearances (e.g., C.
cardinalis).
Chapter 17
Organizing Life’s Diversity
17.2 Modern Classification
Phylogenic Species Concept
 Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a
species.
 The phylogenic species concept defines a
species as a cluster of organisms that is
distinct from other clusters and shows
evidence of a pattern of ancestry and descent.
Phylogeny of the Animal Kingdom
Chapter 21
Introduction to Plants
21.1 Plant Evolution and Adaptations
Chapter 12 Molecular Genetics
12.1 DNA: The Genetic Material
DNA Structure
 Nucleotides
 Consist of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base
Chapter 12 Molecular Genetics
12.1 DNA: The Genetic Material
Chargaff
 Chargaff’s rule:
C = G and T = A
Chapter 12 Molecular Genetics
12.3 DNA, RNA, and Protein
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
 Long strands of RNA nucleotides that are
formed complementary to one strand of DNA
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Associates with proteins to form ribosomes
in the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 Smaller segments of RNA nucleotides that
transport amino acids to the ribosome
Final Binder Check: by Wednesday
5/24
All late and missing work due by 5/24
• Ref.: Chapter 15 vocabulary
• Notes:
– Chapter 15 notes
– Classification guided notes
– Final Exam study guide
• Test and Quiz: Chapter 12 quizzes one and two
• Daily Work:
–
–
–
–
Chapter 15 study method
Homologous and Analogous structures worksheets
Cladogram practice worksheets
Chapter 17 study method
• Lab and projects
– Frog dissection paragraph writing guides
Chapter 2
Principles of Ecology
2.2 Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem
Food Chains
 A food chain is a
simple model that
shows how energy
flows through an
ecosystem.
Chapter 2
Principles of Ecology
2.2 Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem
Food Webs
 A food web is a
model representing
the many
interconnected food
chains and pathways
in which energy flows
through a group of
organisms.
Chapter 2
Principles of Ecology
2.2 Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem
Ecological Pyramids
 A diagram that can show the relative amounts
of energy, biomass, or numbers of organisms
at each trophic level in an organism
Chapter 11
Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity
11.1 Basic Patterns of Human Inheritance
Pedigrees
 A diagram that traces the inheritance of a
particular trait through several generations
Chapter 11
Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity
11.1 Basic Patterns of Human Inheritance
Inferring Genotypes
 Knowing physical traits can determine what
genes an individual is most likely to have.
Predicting Disorders
 Record keeping helps scientists use
pedigree analysis to study inheritance
patterns, determine phenotypes, and
ascertain genotypes.
Chapter 11
Complex Inheritance and Human Heredity
11.2 Complex Patterns of Inheritance
Incomplete Dominance
 The heterozygous phenotype is an
intermediate phenotype between the two
homozygous phenotypes.
Chapter 7
Cellular Structure and Function
7.4 Cellular Transport
Diffusion
 Movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration
Initial Conditions
Diffusion
Low
High
High
Low
Chapter 7
Cellular Structure and Function
7.4 Cellular Transport
Isotonic Solution
 Water and dissolved substances diffuse into
and out of the cell at the same rate.
Plant Cell
Blood Cell
11,397x
Chapter 7
Cellular Structure and Function
7.4 Cellular Transport
Hypotonic Solution
 Solute concentration is higher inside the cell.
 Water diffuses into the cell.
Plant Cell
Blood Cell
13,000x
Chapter 7
Cellular Structure and Function
7.4 Cellular Transport
Hypertonic Solution
 Solute concentration is higher outside the cell.
 Water diffuses out of the cell.
Plant Cell
Blood Cell
13,000x
Crossing Over
 Crossing over produces exchange of genetic
information.
 Crossing over—chromosomal segments are
exchanged between a pair of homologous
chromosomes.
Meiosis Provides Variation
 Depending on how the
chromosomes line up at the
equator, four gametes with
four different combinations
of chromosomes can result.
 Genetic variation also is
produced during crossing
over and during
fertilization, when gametes
randomly combine.
Molecular Genetics
Translation [of mRNA codons to protein]
 Experiments during the 1960s demonstrated
that the DNA code was a three-base code.
 The three-base code in DNA or mRNA is
called a codon.
Molecular Genetics
Translation
 In translation, tRNA
molecules act as the
interpreters of the mRNA
codon sequence.
 At the middle of the folded
strand, there is a three-base
coding sequence called the
anticodon.
 Each anticodon is
complementary to a codon
on the mRNA.
So now we get to the codon table!
• Locate the first letter
of your codon using
the left side of the
table.
• Ex. AUG
• look for the A
• Now move to the second
letter of your codon which is
‘U’
• Look at the top of the table
where you see the title ‘2nd
letter’
• Find the letter ‘U’ and follow
it down until it intersects
with the letter ‘A’ from the
left side.
• You should see four amino
acids (isoleucine, isoleucine,
isoleucine, and (start)
methionine.
• Down to the last letter of
the codon!
• Look to the right hand
side for the third letter.
Find the letter ‘G’ which
will intersect with the box
that had our four choices.
• Move your finger from the
‘G’ on the left over to the
left and you should land
on ….. Methionine (start)
• Yes you did it!!!
• Now try another codon
Try the codon CAC
Don’t peek until you
come up with your
answer!
Did you get the
amino acid
‘histidine’?
What do these codons have to do with
proteins?
• Each codon represents an
amino acid that will
eventually form a protein
that is used within a cell.
• Proteins are made up of
hundreds of amino acids
in a specific sequence.
• When they get “out of
order’ a mutation occurs.
Long string
of amino
acids will
form