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PERCEPTION DALEEP PARIMOO Perception Perception: is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Factors Influencing Perception: 1.) Perceiver 2.) Target 3.) Situation Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others Attribution Theory Two Types of Causes: 1) Internal 2) External Three Factors of the Attribution Theory: 1.) Distinctiveness 2.) Consensus 3.) Consistency Self Serving Bias Fundamental Attribution Error Shortcuts in Judging Others: 1.) Selective Perception 2.) Halo Effect 3.) Contrast Effects 4.) Projection 5.) Stereotyping Specific Applications in Organizations: 1.) Employment Interview 2.) Performance Expectations (Self Fulfilling Prophecy) 3.) Performance Evaluation 4.) Employee Effort What is the perceptual process? Perception. – The process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information. – Perceptual information is gathered from: • • • • • Sight. Hearing. Touch. Taste. Smell. 25 What is the perceptual process? Factors influencing the perceptual process. – Characteristics of the perceiver. – Characteristics of the setting. – Characteristics of the perceived. 26 What is the perceptual process? Characteristics of the perceiver. – The perceptual process is influenced by the perceiver’s: • Past experiences. • Needs or motives. • Personality. • Values and attitudes. 27 What is the perceptual process? Characteristics of the setting. – The perceptual process is influenced by the setting’s: • Physical context. • Social context. • Organizational context. 28 What is the perceptual process? Characteristics of the perceived. – The perceptual process is influenced by characteristics of the perceived person, object, or event, such as: • Contrast. • Intensity. • Figure-ground separation. • Size. • Motion. • Repetition or novelty. 29 What is the perceptual process? Stages of the perceptual process. – Information attention and selection. – Organization of information. – Information interpretation. – Information retrieval. 30 What is the perceptual process? Information attention and selection. – Selective screening. • Lets in only a tiny proportion all the information that bombards a person. – Two types of selective screening. • Controlled processing. • Screening without perceiver’s conscious awareness. 31 What is the perceptual process? Organization of information. – Schemas. • Cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge about a given concept or stimulus developed through experience. – Types of schemas. • Self schemas. • Person schemas. • Script schemas. • Person-in-situation schemas. 32 What is the perceptual process? Information interpretation. – Uncovering the reasons behind the ways stimuli are grouped. – People may interpret the same information differently or make different attributions about information. 33 What is the perceptual process? Information retrieval. – Attention and selection, organization, and interpretation are part of memory. – Information stored in memory must be retrieved in order to be used. 34 What is the perceptual process? Response to the perceptual process. – Thoughts. – Feelings. – Actions. 35 What are common perceptual distortions? Common perceptual distortions include: – Stereotypes or prototypes. – Halo effects. – Selective perception. – Projection. – Contrast effects. – Self-fulfilling prophecy. 36 What are common perceptual distortions? Stereotypes or prototypes. – Combines information based on the category or class to which a person, situation, or object belongs. – Strong impact at the organization stage. – Individual differences are obscured. 37 What are common perceptual distortions? Halo effects. – Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation. – Likely to occur in the organization stage. – Individual differences are obscured. – Important in the performance appraisal process. 38 What are common perceptual distortions? Selective perception. – The tendency to single out those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one’s needs, values, or attitudes. – Strongest impact is at the attention stage. – Perception checking with other persons can help counter the adverse impact of selective perception. 39 What are common perceptual distortions? Projection. – The assignment of one’s personal attributes to other individuals. – Especially likely to occur in interpretation stage. – Projection can be controlled through a high degree of self-awareness and empathy. 40 What are common perceptual distortions? Contrast effects. – Occur when an individual is compared to other people on the same characteristics on which the others rank higher or lower. 41 What are common perceptual distortions? Self-fulfilling prophecy. – The tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one expected to find. – Also called the “Pygmalion effect.” – Can have either positive or negative outcomes. – Managers should adopt positive and optimistic approaches to people at work. 42 How can the perceptual process be managed? Impression management. – A person’s systematic attempt to behave in ways that create and maintain desired impressions in others’ eyes. – Successful managers: • Use impression management to enhance their own images. • Are sensitive to other people’s use of impression management. 43 How can the perceptual process be managed? Distortion management. – Managers should: • Balance automatic and controlled information processing at the attention and selection stage. • Broaden their schemas at the organizing stage. • Be attuned to attributions at the interpretation stage. 44 What is attribution theory? Attribution theory aids in perceptual interpretation by focusing on how people attempt to: – Understand the causes of a certain event. – Assess responsibility for the outcomes of the event. – Evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved in the event. 45 What is attribution theory? Internal versus external attributions of causes of behavior. – Internal causes are under the individual’s control. – External causes are within the person’s environment. 46 What is attribution theory? Factors influencing internal and external attributions. – Distinctiveness — consistency of a person’s behavior across situations. – Consensus — likelihood of others responding in a similar way. – Consistency — whether an individual responds the same way across time. 47 What is attribution theory? Fundamental attribution error. – Applies to the evaluation of someone’s else behavior. – Attributing success to the influence of situational factors. – Attributing failure to the influence of personal factors. 48 What is attribution theory? Self-serving bias. – Applies to the evaluation of our own behavior. – Attributing success to the influence of personal factors. – Attributing failure to the influence of situational factors. 49 What is attribution theory? Attributions across cultures. – The fundamental attribution error and self- serving bias operate differently in different cultures. 50