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Thinker Research Rebecca Cloud EDU 320 Howard Gardner Howard Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences (Anon., 2004). He believed each individual possessed many distinct forms of intelligence, which varied from person to person (Anon., 2004). In his theory there were seven primary forms: linguistic/language, musical/different aspects of music, logicalmathematical/mathematics, spatial/diagrams, body-kinesthetic/hands-on, intrapersonal/insight, and interpersonal/social skills (Anon., 2004). He also believed learning and teaching should focus on an individuals particular intelligences, and assessment should measure all forms of intelligence not only language and mathematics (Anon., 2004). He emphasizes that cultures tend to emphasize particular intelligences and individuals should be able to choose which intelligence they prefer in the learning process (Anon., 2004). Lev Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky is known for his social development theory (Anon., 2004). He believed that social interaction played an important role in cognitive development (Anon., 2004). Vygotsky (1978) states “Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people and then inside the child. This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals” (p. 57). Zone proximal development or ZPD is considered by Vygotsky to be the level of development gained when children engage socially (Anon., 2004). For example, learning language, first utterances of language are for mere communication, yet will become internalized once the language is mastered (Anon., 2004). He believed that full cognitive development depended on zone proximal development (Anon., 2004). He also believed that cognitive development was limited at given ages to certain ranges of development (Anon., 2004). Jean Piaget Jean Piaget conducted a tremendous amount of research , which he called genetic epistemology (Anon., 2004). He did this type of research because he was [profoundly interested in how knowledge developed in humans (Anon., 2004). He used his knowledge of biology and philosophy in his theories of child development. “Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development” (Anon., 2004). According to Piaget, four primary cognitive structures existed: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations (Anon., 2004). The sensorimotor stage deals with the motor skills of children in the range of ages 0-2 years (Anon., 2004). Intelligence in the preoperations stage, 3-7, is more intuitive (Anon., 2004). Children in the age range of 8-11 years are considered to be in the concrete operations stage. In this stage children try to put logical into concrete references (Anon., 2004). The last stage formal operations (children 12-15 years of age) are where thinkers start to be more abstract. Through these stages cognitive development goes through changes or adaptations , which are known as assimilation and accommodation (Anon., 2004). Assimilation involves using existing cognition while accommodation means changing the structure to fit the situation (Anon., 2004). Piaget believed that children would present different explanations for ideas depending on the level of cognition they were in (Anon., 2004). James Bruner James Bruner developed a constructivist theory that learners construct new ideas from past and present knowledge or experiences (Anon., 2004). He develops Piagets theory of cognitive structures to include that learners should be taught on the basis of information they already know (Anon., 2004). The curriculum should be in a spirally manner to incorporate and build upon learners previous understandings of concepts (Anon., 2004). The instructor and student should have an open dialog relationship (Anon., 2004). Theory of instruction should address four concepts: 1. predisposition about learning, 2. ways to structure knowledge to make it available for learners to understand, 3. a well-organized way to present material, and 4. the nature of rewards and punishment (Anon., 2004). Bruner also includes the social and cultural aspect of learning; learning from others and the environment (Anon., 2004). He focuses mostly on language, mathematics, and science (Anon., 2004). Bruner’s most profound principles include teaching learners by using experiences and contexts that make learning enjoyable and wanted by the learner (Anon., 2004). Also instruction should be able to fill in any gaps learners may have, regarding that information, in their frames (Anon., 2004). Maria Montessori Maria Montessori developed two major principles: The absorbent mind and sensitive periods (Caspari, 2000). These principles were never labeled as theories making them easier to use even today (Caspari, 2000). She discovered that a childs mind up to the age of seven to be absorbent (Caspari, 2000). In that age range a childs experiences are molded into their personality and frames (Caspari, 2000). Between the ages of three and six children are sensitive to their development of language, good manners, order, etc. (Caspari, 2000). Children tend to or seem to learn effortlessly (Caspari, 2000). At the age of six or seven the absorbent mind begins to be replaced by an abstract form of thinking (Caspari, 2000). Children are taught good coordination at the preschool age and are helped to develop important motor skills (Caspari, 2000). Maria also developed scientifically designed materials for sensory development , which is known, as one of her greatest gifts to early childhood education (Caspari, 2000). Using vocabulary that is present in a childs everyday surroundings begins language at an early age (Caspari, 2000). Religion is also a part of the Montessori principles, mostly the golden rule (Caspari, 2000). James Banks James Banks mostly believes that students should be critical thinkers (Ardoin, 2000). He believes that students should think for themselves rather then told what to think (Ardoin, 2000). Students should be able to give their own interpretations of information, since everyone understands things differently (Ardoin, 2000). He states that learners need to be able to assert their own positions, ideas, and interests to encourage the best learning environment for each learner (Ardoin, 2000). Erik Erikson Erikson has developed a theory involving eight stages of human development (About, 2004). Stage one is infancy, age 0-1 (About, 2004). In this stage infants have to trust their parents to provide them with the basic need of food, affection, warmth, etc. (About, 2004). If these items are met all of the time by responsible parents infants begin to willingly trust their parents and themselves, on the other hand if the needs are not met mistrust will occur (About, 2004). Stage two involves toddlers age 1-2 (About, 2004). This is the stage of self-confidence. Encouragement on the part of the parents helps toddlers cope with future situations with confidence and independence (About, 2004). If a parent is over protective a child may become ashamed of his behavior and have doubt of his abilities (About, 2004). Stage three is early childhood, age 2-6 (About, 2004). At this stage children must find a balance between eagerness for adventure and impulse control (About, 2004). If parents are consistent with discipline yet encouraging children will learn right from wrong without guilt (About, 2004). If not children can show signs of guilt about being independent (About, 2004). Stage four consists of elementary and middle school years, age 6-12 (About, 2004). Children begin to learn to be a worker and provider outside of the home (About, 2004). If children find pleasure in success they can develop a sense of competence, if they don’t they will develop a sense of inferiority (About, 2004). Stage five adolescence, age 12-18 (About, 2004). The identity crisis is the single most significant conflict a person must face in Erikson’s opinion (About, 2004). With a positive outcome an adolescent will come out with a strong identity prepared for the future, while a negative outcome will result in confusion (About, 2004). Stage six young adulthood, age 19-40 (About, 2004). Erikson says that a person is not developmentally complete without intimacy (About, 2004). People with strong identities will attain close meaningful relationships while those without will feel isolated and fear commitment (About, 2004). Stage seven middle adulthood, age 40-65 (About, 2004). This stage refers to a persons need to have children (About, 2004). This situation is resolved by having children or mentoring others (About, 2004). On the other hand not solving this need can result in stagnation (About, 2004). Stage eight late adulthood, age 65-death (About, 2004). People of old age need to know that their life had meaning (About, 2004). If this is accomplished that individual will accept death, on the other hand if it is not achieved the individual will fear death (About, 2004). Reference About, Inc. (2004). Erikson-eight stages of psychosocial development. Retrieved on March 28, 2004 from http://psychology.about.com/library/weekly/aa091500a.htm. Anon. (2004). Genetic epistemology (J. Piaget). Retrieved on March 27, 2004 from http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.html. Anon. (2004). Social development theory (L. Vygotsky). Retrieved on March 27, 2004 from http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html. Anon. (2004). Multiple intelligences (H. Gardner). Retrieved on March 27, 2004 from http://tip.psychology.org/gardner.html. Anon. (2004). Constructivist theory (J. Bruner). Retrieved on March 27, 2004 from http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html. Ardoin, B. D. (2000). Multiculturalism-theories. Retrieved on March 28, 2004 from http://www.start-at-zero.com/papers/multiculturalism/theories.htm. Caspari Montessori Institute International, Inc. (2000). Maria Montessori method. Retrieved on March 28, 2004 from http://www.montessori-trainingcmi.org/montessori.html.