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Layering of the Earth’s Atmosphere Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Ozone Depletion Chapter 15 Temperature Earth’s Atmosphere Pressure Thermosphere Troposphere(對流層) Mesopause • 75–80% earth’s air mass • 78% N2, 21% O2 Mesosphere Stratopause Stratosphere(平流層) Stratosphere Tropopause Ozone layer----好的 臭氧(吸收紫外線) 約海平面上17-30km Ozone layer Troposphere Fig. 15-2, p. 346 15-1 What Are the Major Air Pollution Problems? (1) 15-1 What Are the Major Air Pollution Problems? (2) Concept 15-1A Three major outdoor air pollution problems are工業煙霧 industrial smog (smoke + fog) from burning coal,光化學煙霧 photochemical smog from motor vehicle and industrial emissions, and 酸性沉降 acid deposition from coal burning and motor vehicle exhaust. Concept 15-1B The most threatening indoor air pollutants are smoke and soot 油煙 from wood and coal fires (in developing countries) and chemicals used in building materials and products (in developed countries). Outdoor Air Pollution Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines on June 12, 1991 (菲律賓 皮納土波火山) What is air pollution? 污染物濃度高到足以傷害生物或物質 並使氣候產生變化 Outdoor and Indoor air pollution Natural and Human Sources* Stationary and mobile sources* 固定污染源 移動污染源 Primary pollutants (初級污染物)(一次污染物) Secondary pollutants (次級污染物)(二次污染物) Fig. 15-1, p. 344 Core Case Study: Volcanoes and Climate Change Sources and Types of Air Pollutants Study volcano to understand climate change Mount Pinatubo – 1991 • Second largest volcanic eruption of 20th century (the largest----Alaska, 1912) • Massive release of air pollution globally Opportunity to test climate models Predictions matched observations Types of Major Air Pollutants Primary Pollutants CO CO2 SO2 NO NO2 Most hydrocarbons Most suspended particles Secondary Pollutants SO3 HNO3 H2SO4 H2O2 O3 PANs Most NO3– and SO42– salts Sources Natural Stationary Mobile Fig. 15-3, p. 347 Carbon oxides (CO, CO2) Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid (NO, NO2, HNO3) Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid (SO2, SO3, H2SO4) Particulates (SPM--- suspended particulate matter) (PM-10, PM-2.5) Ozone (O3) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs, e.g. CH4, C6H6) Radioactive radon (Rn) 氡 Science Focus: Using Lichens(地衣) to Detect Air Pollution Lichens Growing on Slate Rock (黏板岩) Indicators of air pollution • Mine canaries---金絲雀偵測甲烷 • Lichens (真菌+藻類的共生物) * Isle Royale in Lake Superior (蘇必略湖 羅耀拉島 有二氧化硫的污染 利用地衣指出 污染源來自加拿大桑德灣的燃煤工廠) Fig. 15-A, p. 348 Industrial Smog 工業煙霧 Photochemical Smog 光化學煙霧 Gray-air smog Brown-air smog (reddish-brown NO2) Burning coal in power plants and factories • Sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid, suspended particles Developed versus developing countries • Air pollution control in the U.S. and Europe • China, India, Ukraine, Eastern Europe (no air pollution control) Sunlight + cars → Photochemical smog Photochemical reactions* Photochemical Smog A mixture of primary and secondary pollutants. Forms when primary pollutants interact under the influence of sunlight. Two most destructive components: • Ozone (臭氧) • Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (過氧乙醯硝酸鹽) (PAN) Large cities ringed by mountains tend to have trouble with photochemical smog.* Daily Changes in Photochemical Smog Fig. 15-4, p. 373 Natural Factors That Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution Natural Factors That Increase Outdoor Air Pollution Particles heavier than air Rain and snow Salty sea spray from oceans Winds Chemical reactions (ex. SO2→ SO3 → H2SO4 → acid rain → land) Thermal Inversion Urban buildings Hills and mountains High temperatures VOC emissions from certain trees and plants Grasshopper effect (跳躍式的傳播) (極地生物體出現DDT, PCBs, Pb, Hg) Temperature inversions (溫度逆轉)* Acid Deposition 酸性沉降* Sulfur dioxides (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) Wet and dry deposition (濕沉降、乾沉降) Acid rain (pH<5.6) Regional air pollution* • Coal-burning power plants • Prevailing winds (盛行風) Acid Deposition Wind Transformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) Nitric oxide (NO) Windborne ammonia gas and some soil particles partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO Wet acid deposition (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3 dissolved in rain and snow) Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts) Acid fog Lakes in deep soil high in limestone are buffered Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone become acidic Fig. 15-4, p. 351 Current and Potential Problems with Acid Deposition Harmful Effects of Acid Deposition Fig. 15-5, p. 351 Respiratory diseases in humans* Toxic metal leaching from soils and rocks Structural damage* Kills fish and other aquatic organisms* Leaches plant nutrients from soil* Acid clouds and fog at mountaintops* Structural Damage Healthy and Diseased Lungs Fig. 15-10, p. 356 Aquatic Organism is killed Impacts of Air Pollution on Trees and Water (leaching nutrients) Mountaintop is damaged by acid cloud and acid fog Emissions NOx SO2 Acid depositionH2O2 O3 PANs Others Direct damage to leaves and bark Reduced photosynthesis and growth Soil acidification Leaching of soil nutrients Acids Release of toxic metal ions Increased susceptibility to drought, extreme cold, insects, mosses, and disease organisms Tree death Root damage Reduced nutrient and water uptake Lake Groundwater Fig. 15-6, p. 353 Reducing Acid Deposition Indoor Air Pollution Often higher concentration in buildings and cars (in buildings 2-5 times, in cars 18 times) Most time is spent indoors or in cars (70-98% of time) EPA – top cancer risk Fig. 15-7, p. 353 Sick-building syndrome (SBS) (dizziness, headaches, coughing, nausea etc.) Major Indoor Air Pollutants Important Indoor Air Pollutants In Developed Countries* Tobacco smoke Formaldehyde (甲醛, HCHO) Radioactive radon-222 gas (Rn-222) Very small particles In Developing Countries Particulates ←Indoor cooking and heating Chloroform Source: Chlorine-treated water in hot showers Possible threat: Cancer Para-dichlorobenzene Tetrachloroethylene Source: Air fresheners, Source: Dry-cleaning fluid fumes on clothes mothball crystals Threat: Nerve disorders, Threat: Cancer damage to liver and kidneys, possible cancer 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Source: Aerosol sprays Threat: Dizziness, irregular breathing Nitrogen oxides Source: Unvented gas stoves and kerosene heaters, woodstoves Threat: Irritated lungs, children's colds, headaches Particulates Source: Pollen, pet dander, dust mites, cooking smoke particles Threat: Irritated lungs, asthma attacks, itchy eyes, runny nose, lung disease Asbestos Carbon monoxide Source: Pipe insulation, vinyl Source: Faulty furnaces, ceiling and floor tiles unvented gas stoves and Threat: Lung disease, lung cancerkerosene heaters, woodstoves Threat: Headaches, drowsiness, irregular heartbeat, death Formaldehyde Source: Furniture stuffing, paneling, particleboard, foam insulation Threat: Irritation of eyes, throat, skin, and lungs; nausea; dizziness Air Pollution and the Human Respiratory System* Natural protective system Styrene Source: Carpets, plastic products Threat: Kidney and liver damage Benzo-α-pyrene Source: Tobacco smoke, woodstoves Threat: Lung cancer Radon-222 Source: Radioactive soil and rock surrounding foundation, water supply Tobacco smoke Threat: Lung cancer Source: Cigarettes Threat: Lung cancer, respiratory ailments, heart disease Methylene chloride Source: Paint strippers and thinners Threat: Nerve disorders, diabetes Lung cancer, chronic bronchitis (慢性支氣管炎), emphysema (肺氣腫), asthma (氣喘) Premature deaths (nearly 6600 death per day) Fossil fuels → particulate matter • Coal • Diesel engines Fig. 15-8, p. 354 Human Respiratory System Epithelial cell Cilia Nasal cavity Oral cavity Goblet cell (secreting mucus) Pharynx (throat) Mucus Trachea (windpipe) Bronchioles Bronchus Alveolar duct Right lung Bronchioles Alveoli Alveolar sac (sectioned) Fig. 15-9, p. 355 15-2 How Should We Deal with Air Pollution? Healthy and Diseased Lungs Concept 15-2 Legal, economic, and technological tools can help clean up air pollution, but scientists call for much greater emphasis on preventing air pollution. Fig. 15-10, p. 356 U.S. Outdoor Air Pollution Control Laws Clean Air Acts National Ambient Air Quality Standards (EPA) Criteria pollutants (CO, NO, SO2, PM, O3, Pb) Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Using the Marketplace to Reduce Air Pollution Emissions trading (cap and trade) program 排放量交易計畫 Proponents – cheaper and more efficient Critics – companies buy their way out Success depends on cap (限量) Good news Emission of pollutants decreased by 53% Pb︰ -99% (1970-2005) Bad news Unaccepted level of ground-level ozone Good news—Reduce SO2 emission by 53% (1990→2006) Bad news—far short of projected emissions reduction Solutions: Stationary Source Air Pollution Solutions: Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Fig. 15-12, p. 358 Fig. 15-13, p. 359 Solutions: Indoor Air Pollution What Can You Do? Fig. 15-14, p. 359 Fig. 15-15, p. 360 15-3 How Might the Earth’s Temperature and Climate Change in the Future? Solutions: Air Pollution Concept 15-3 Evidence indicates that the earth’s atmosphere is warming, mostly because of human activities, and that this will lead to significant climate change during this century. Fig. 15-16, p. 360 Estimated Changes in the Average Global Temperature Fig. 15-17c, p. 361 Past Climate Changes Ice Cores: Records of Past Climates Glacial and interglacial (between ice age) periods Estimation of past temperature changes • • • • Analysis of radioisotopes in rocks and fossils Plankton and radioisotopes in ocean sediments Tiny bubbles of ancient air in Ice cores from glaciers* Temperature at different depths of boreholes deep in earth’s surface Fig. 15-18, p. 361 The Greenhouse Effect Solar radiation Energy in = Energy out Earth’s natural greenhouse effect** UV radiation Natural greenhouse gases • • • • Reflected by atmosphere Water vapor (H2O) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4) Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Most absorbed by ozone Radiated by atmosphere as heat Lower Stratosphere (ozone layer) Visible light Troposphere Heat Absorbed by the earth Heat radiated by the earth Greenhouse effect Enhanced greenhouse effect • Global warming Fig. 3-7, p. 44 Evidence to Support Global Warming Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) established in 1988 Warm, less salty, shallow current Cold, salty, deep current Fig. 5-6, p. 79 2007 IPCC report Rise in average global surface temperature 13 warmest years on record since 1990 (1861--) Arctic temperatures have risen twice as fast Changes in glaciers**, rainfall patterns, hurricanes Sea level rise in last century 4–8 inches (10-20cm) Melting of Alaska’s Muir Glacier (1948-2004) Average Drop in Summer Arctic Sea Ice (1979 blue-2005 white) Fig. 15-20, p. 363 Fig. 15-19, p. 363 Potential Consequences of Enhanced Global Warming Measured Average Temperatures and Future Predictions Rate and extent of temperature changes* Tipping point (臨界點) Droughts and floods Intense storms and hurricanes Extinctions Diseases Economic and social disruption (lack of clean water and food) Fig. 15-C, p. 365 Factors Affecting the Earth’s Temperatureamplify or dampen the change Ability of oceans to store or release carbon dioxide and absorb heat from the lower atmosphere Effects of cloud cover (thick and continuous clouds at low altitudes decrease surface warming; thin and discontinuous cirrus clouds at high altitudes increase surface warming ) Aerosol pollutants (light-colored sulfate particles reflect sunlight, soot and black carbon aerosols absorb sunlight) Photosynthesis (the effect would be temporary) Beneficial Effects of Global Warming Less severe winters More precipitation in dry areas Less precipitation in wet areas Increased food production for some areas 15-4 What Are Some Possible Effects of a Warmer Earth? Concept 15-4 Some areas will benefit from a warmer climate and others will suffer from melting ice, rising sea levels, more extreme weather events, increased drought and floods, and shifts in locations of wildlife habitats and agricultural areas. Harmful Effects of Global Warming Arctic ice and snow melt Rising sea levels* Melting permafrost(永久凍土層) Changing ocean currents Extreme weather (drought, flood) Threat to biodiversity (如北極熊) Change location of agricultural crops Threats to human health (heat waves, infectious diseases, hunger) Rising Sea Levels Threaten Low-lying Islands (Maldives馬爾地夫) 15-5 What Can We Do about Global Warming? Concept 15-5A We can slow the rate of climate change by increasing energy efficiency, relying more on renewable energy resources, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Concept 15-5B Governments can tax greenhouse gas emissions, subsidize energy efficiency and renewable energy use, and cooperate internationally, and individuals and institutions can sharply reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Fig. 15-21, p. 369 Difficulties in Dealing with Climate Change Options to Deal with Climate Change Problem is global Basic approaches: require unprecedented international cooperation Long-lasting effects • Drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions • Develop strategies to reduce its harmful effects Long-term political issue Mix both approaches Impacts are not spread evenly Governments beginning to act promptly harmful and beneficial impacts Change can disrupt economies and lifestyles Removing Carbon Dioxide from the Atmosphere Solutions to Global Warming* Fig. 15-22, p. 371 Oil rig Tanker delivers CO2 from plant to rig CO2 is pumped down from rig for disposal in deep ocean or under seafloor sediments Government Roles in Reducing the Threat of Climate Change Coal power plant Tree plantation Abandoned oil field Switchgrass Crop field CO2 is pumped underground Spent oil or natural gas reservoir Spent coal bed cavern Deep, saltwater-filled cavern Fig. 15-23, p. 372 Regulate carbon dioxide as a pollutant Phase in carbon taxes or energy taxs Cap total CO2 emissions and trade permits Subsidize energy-efficient technologies Reducing subsides for using fossil fuels… Technology transfers Transfer green technologies to developing countries International climate negotiations the Kyoto Protocol (Dec.1997) Preparing for the Possible Harmful Effects of Long-term Climate Change What Can You Do? Fig. 15-24, p. 375 15-6 How Have We Depleted Ozone in the Stratosphere and What Can We Do about It? Develop crops that need less water Waste less water Connect wildlife reserves with corridors Move hazardous material storage tanks away from coast Move people away from low-lying coastal areas Stockpile 1- to 5-year supply of key foods Concept 15-6A Widespread use of certain chemicals has reduced ozone levels in the stratosphere, which allows more harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth’s surface. Concept 15-6B To reverse ozone depletion, we must stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals, and adhere to(支持) the international treaties that ban such chemicals. Prohibit new construction on low-lying coastal areas or build houses on stilts Expand existing wildlife reserves toward poles Fig. 15-25, p. 375 Image of the largest Antarctic ozone hole ever recorded in September 2006 Human Impact on the Ozone Layer Location and purpose of the ozone layer lower stratosphere. keep about 95% of the sun’s harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth’s surface Seasonal and long-term depletion of ozone Causes – chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)* chemically unreactive, odorless, nonflammable, nontoxic and noncorrosive compounds Former Uses of CFCs Coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators Propellants in aerosol cans Cleaning solutions for electronic parts Fumigants for granaries and ship cargo holds Bubbles in plastic packing foam Individuals Matter: Banning of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Chemists Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina (University of California-Irvine,1974) (the Nobel Prize in chemistry, 1995) Four major conclusions • CFCs Remain in atmosphere • Rise into stratosphere over 11-20 years • Break down into atoms that accelerate ozone depletion* • Stay in stratosphere for long periods(65-385 years) Called for ban. Defended research against big industry (14 years) Table 9.7 Ozone Thinning Seasonal changes Antarctica, October; Arctic, February-June More severe over Antarctica than the Arctic Antarctica 40-50% loss; Arctic 11-38% loss Consequences* Effects of Ozone Depletion Fig. 15-26, p. 377 What Can You Do? Reversing Ozone Depletion Stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals (ODCs) Slow recovery (60+ years) Montreal Protocol (1987, Montreal, Canada) Copenhagen Protocol (1992, Copenhagen, Denmark) Fig. 15-27, p. 378