Download 1-Legacy of the Roman Empire

Setting the Stage - Europe During Medieval Times
The title of this unit has two key words—Europe and medieval.
You probably recognize one of them. Europe—that’s the continent
east of North America across the Atlantic Ocean. But medieval—
what does this word mean? Why is it important?
The period of time we call medieval began with the fall of Roman
Empire and lasted until about 1450. This long period of time is
also known as the Middle Ages. It is the period between ancient
and modern times.
Historians divide the Middle Ages into three parts—early, middle,
and late. The Early Middle Ages lasted from about the year 476 to
1000 C.E. The High Middle Ages lasted from about 1000 to 1300.
The Late Middle Ages lasted from about 1300 to 1450.
You will begin your study of the medieval world with Europe. The
physical geography of Europe has remained largely unchanged
since medieval times. But the political geography of this region—
such as place names and boundaries—have changed a great deal.
Europe is part of the huge landmass called Eurasia. Look at the
physical map of Europe on the opposite page. Europe is a giant
peninsula attached to Eurasia. Oceans and seas border Europe to
the north, south, and west. Much of its land lies on the Northern
European Plain. This plain is one of the largest expanses of fl at
land on Earth. Several mountain ranges extend across Europe,
separating different regions. The Alps, for example, form a barrier
between central and southern Europe.
Now look at the map of medieval Europe on this page. Some place names, such as
England and France, will be familiar to you. Other names refer to political features that
no longer exist but live on as present-day names. For example, Castile, Leon, and
Navarre were kingdoms in medieval Spain. Now they designate regions in present-day
Spain.
Why is it important to study the medieval period? Events in the past have helped to
shape the present. For example, in the year 1295 an English king created a governing
body that centuries later influenced the creation of modern democratic institutions—
including our own Congress.
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Section 1 - Introduction
"All roads lead to Rome,"
boasted the ancient Romans.
For 500 years, from about 27
B.C.E. to 476 C.E., the city of
Rome was the capital of the
greatest empire the world had
ever seen. Road markers for
thousands of miles showed
the distance to Rome. But the
empire’s 50 million people
were connected by more than
roads. They were also
connected by Roman law,
Roman customs, and Roman military might.
At its height, around 200 C.E., the Roman Empire spanned the
whole of the Mediterranean world, from northern Africa to the
Scottish border, from Spain to Syria. During this time, the
Roman world was generally peaceful and prosperous. There was
one official language and one code of law. Roman soldiers
guarded the frontiers and kept order within the empire’s
boundaries. Proud Romans believed that the empire would last
forever.
But the empire did not last. By the year 500, the western half of
this great empire had collapsed [collapsed: to fail
suddenly and completely] . For historians, the fall of Rome
marks the end of the ancient world and the beginning of the Middle Ages.
As one historian has written, “Rome perished, yet it lived on.” The medieval world would pass on many aspects of Roman
culture that still affect us today.
In this chapter, you will discover how and why the Roman Empire fell. Then you will learn how Rome’s influence lives on
in so many ways today—in art, architecture and engineering, language and writing, and philosophy, law, and citizenship.
Section 2 - The End of the Roman Empire in the West
Rome’s first emperor, Caesar Augustus, ended 100 years of civil war and expanded the boundaries of the Roman
Empire [Roman Empire: an empire that, at its height, around 200 C.E., spanned the Mediterranean
world and most of Europe] . When he died in 14 C.E., few Romans could imagine that their empire [empire: a
large territory in which several groups of people are ruled by a single leader or government] would ever
end. Yet by the year 500, the western half of the empire
had collapsed. What caused the fall of the mighty Roman
Empire?
Problems in the Late Empire There was no single
reason for the end of the Roman Empire. Instead,
historians point to a number of problems that combined
to bring about its fall.
Political Instability Rome never solved the problem of
how to peacefully transfer political power to a new leader.
When an emperor died, ambitious rivals with
independent armies often fought each other for control of
the empire.
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Even when the transfer of power happened without conflict [conflict: a disagreement or fight caused by
opposing points of view] , there was no good system for choosing the next emperor. Many times, the Praetorian
Guard, the emperor’s private army, chose the new ruler. But they frequently chose leaders who would reward them rather
than those who were best prepared to be emperor.
Economic and Social Problems Besides political instability, the empire suffered from economic and social problems.
To finance Rome’s huge armies, its citizens had to pay heavy taxes. These taxes weakened the economy and drove many
people into poverty. Trade also suffered.
Unemployment was a serious problem. Wealthy families used slaves and cheap labor to work their large estates. Small
farmers could not compete with the large landowners. They fled to the cities looking for work, but there were not enough
jobs for everyone.
Other social problems plagued the empire, including growing corruption [corruption: a pattern of illegal or
immoral activities by government officials] and a decline [decline: a slow breakdown or failure] in the
spirit of citizenship. Notorious emperors like Nero and Caligula wasted large amounts of money. A rise in crime made the
empire’s cities and roads unsafe.
Weakening Frontiers A final problem was the weakening of the empire’s frontiers. The huge size of the empire made
it hard to defend. It sometimes took weeks for leaders in Rome to communicate with generals. By the 300s C.E., Germanic
tribes were pressing hard on the western borders of the empire. Many of these peoples went on to settle inside the empire
and were recruited into the army. But often these soldiers had little loyalty to Rome.
The Fall of Rome In 330 C.E., the emperor Constantine [Constantine: Roman emperor who, in 330 C.E.,
moved the capital to Byzantium and later renamed it Constantinople] took a step that changed the future of the
Roman Empire. He moved his capital 850 miles east, to the ancient city of Byzantium. He renamed the city New Rome.
Later, it was called Constantinople. In modern times it was renamed yet again. Today, it is known as Istanbul, Turkey.
After Constantine’s reign, the vast empire was usually ruled by two emperors, one based in Rome and one based in
Constantinople. Rome became the capital of just the western part of the empire. Constantinople was the capital of the
eastern part of the empire.
The emperors in Rome soon found themselves threatened by invading Germanic tribes. In 410 C.E., one of these tribes
attacked and looted Rome itself. Finally, in 476, the last emperor in the west was driven from his throne. The western half
of the empire began to dissolve into separate kingdoms.
In the east, the empire continued for another 1,000 years. Today, we refer to this eastern empire as the Byzantine Empire,
after Byzantium, the original name of its capital city.
In western Europe, Rome’s fall did not mean the end of Roman civilization. The influence of Rome lived on through the
medieval period and all the way to our time. As you read about the legacy of the Romans, think about how ideas and
events from the distant past still affect us today.
Section 3 - The Legacy of Roman Art
The Romans adopted many features of other cultures and
blended them into their own, unique [unique: one of
a kind] culture. This was true of Roman art. The Romans
were especially influenced by the art of the Greeks. In
fact, historians often speak of “Greco-Roman” art. Rome
played a vital role in passing on this tradition, which has
had a major influence on western art.
The Romans added their own talents and tastes to what
they learned from other cultures. For example, they
imitated Greek sculpture, but Roman sculptors were
particularly good at making lifelike busts and statues.
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Romans were also great patrons, or sponsors, of art. Wealthy families decorated their homes with statues and colorful
murals and mosaics [mosaic: a picture made up of small pieces of tile, glass, or colored stone] . Roman
artists were especially skilled in painting frescoes, scenes painted on the moist plaster of walls or ceilings with water-based
paints. Roman frescoes often showed three-dimensional landscapes. Looking at one of these frescoes was almost like
looking through the wall at a view outside. You’ve probably seen similar murals in restaurants, banks, and other modern
public buildings.
The Romans also brought a sense of style and luxury to everyday
objects. For example, they made highly decorative bottles of
blown glass. A wine bottle might be shaped as a cluster of grapes.
The Romans also developed the arts of gem cutting and
metalworking. One popular art form was the cameo. A cameo is a
carved decoration showing a portrait or a scene. The Romans
wore cameos as jewelry and used them to decorate vases and
other objects. You can find examples of all these art forms today.
About a thousand years after the fall of the empire, Roman art
was rediscovered during the period called the Renaissance.
During the Renaissance, great artists, such as Michelangelo,
revived the Greco-Roman style in their paintings and sculptures.
A good example is the famous ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in
Rome. Painted by Michelangelo in the 1500s, the ceiling shows
scenes from the Bible. A Roman would feel right at home looking
up at this amazing creation. Tourists still flock to Rome to see it.
Roman art has continued to influence painters and sculptors. Roman styles were especially popular during the early days
of the United States. Americans imitated these styles to give their art dignity and nobility. Today, you can see a number of
statues in Washington, D.C., that reflect a strong Roman influence.
Section 4 - The Legacy of Roman Architecture and Engineering
The Romans were skilled and clever builders. In their architecture
and engineering, they borrowed ideas from the Greeks and other
peoples. But the Romans improved on these ideas in ways that future
engineers and architects would imitate.
Architecture The Romans learned how to use the arch, the vault,
and the dome to build huge structures. A vault is an arch used for a
ceiling or to support a ceiling or roof. A dome is a vault in the shape of
a half-circle that rests on a circular wall.
Roman baths and other public buildings often had great arched
vaults. The Pantheon, a magnificent temple that still stands in Rome,
is famous for its huge dome. The Romans used concrete to help them
build much bigger arches than anyone had attempted before.
Concrete is made by mixing broken stone with sand, cement, and
water and allowing the mixture to harden. The Romans did not invent
the material, but they were the first to make widespread use of it.
The Romans also invented a new kind of stadium. These
large, open-air structures could seat thousands of
spectators. The Romans used concrete to build tunnels
into the famous stadium in Rome, the Colosseum. The
tunnels made it easy for spectators to reach their seats.
Modern football stadiums still use this feature.
The grand style of Roman buildings has inspired many
architects through the centuries. Early medieval architects,
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for example, frequently imitated Roman designs, especially in building great churches and cathedrals. You can also see a
Roman influence in the design of many modern churches, banks, and government buildings. A fine example is the Capitol
building, the home of the U.S. Congress in Washington, D.C.
Another Roman innovation that has been widely copied is the triumphal arch. This is a huge monument built to celebrate
great victories or achievements. A famous example is the Arc de Triomphe (Arch of Triumph) in Paris, France. This
monument celebrates the victories of the French emperor Napoleon in the early 1800s. Today, it is the national war
memorial of France.
Engineering The Romans changed engineering as well as architecture. They were the greatest builders of roads,
bridges, and aqueducts [aqueduct: a pipe or raised channel built to carry water over a long distance] in the
ancient world.
More than 50,000 miles of road connected Rome with the frontiers of the empire. The Romans built their roads with
layers of stone, sand, and gravel. Their techniques set the standard of road building for 2,000 years. People in some parts
of Europe still drive on highways built over old Roman roads.
The Romans also set a new standard for building aqueducts. They created a system of aqueducts for Rome that brought
water from about 60 miles away to the homes of the city’s wealthiest citizens, as well as to its public baths and fountains.
The Romans built aqueducts in other parts of the empire as well. The water system in Segovia, Spain, still uses part of an
ancient Roman aqueduct. Roman arches from aqueducts can still be found in Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia.
Section 5 - The Legacy of Roman Language and Writing
An especially important legacy of Rome for people in medieval times was the
Romans’ language, Latin. After the fall of the empire, Latin continued to be used by
scholars and the Roman Catholic Church. Church scribes [scribe: a person
trained to write or copy documents by hand] used Latin to create important
documents [document: a written work containing information] . Educated
European nobles learned Latin so they could communicate with their peers in other
countries.
Latin remains extremely influential. Several modern European languages developed
from Latin, including Italian, Spanish, and French. English is a Germanic language,
but it was strongly influenced by the French-speaking Normans, who conquered
England in 1066 C.E. English has borrowed heavily from Latin, both directly and by way of French. In fact, we still use the
Latin alphabet, although Latin has 23 letters and
English has 26.
You can see the influence of Latin in many of the
words we use today. For example, our calendar
comes from the one adopted by the Roman ruler
Julius Caesar. The names of several months come
from Latin. August honors Caesar Augustus.
September comes from Latin words meaning “the
seventh month.” (The
Roman year started in
March, so September
was the seventh
month.) October
means “the eighth month.” Can you guess the meanings of the words November and
December? Latin also remains very important in the subjects of the law, medicine, and
religion, as well.
Many English words start with Latin prefixes. A prefix is a word part placed at the beginning
of a word that carries its own meaning. Attaching a prefix to a root word creates a new word
with a new meaning. In fact, the word prefix was formed this way. It comes from pre- (“in
front of”) and -fix (“fasten” or “attach”). The chart on this page shows other examples.
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As you can see from the chart, other English words come from Latin root words. For instance, the words manual and
manipulate are derived from the Latin word manus, meaning “hand.”
Even Latin proverbs [proverb: a popular saying meant to express something wise or true] are still in use. For
example, look at the reverse side of a U.S. penny. There you’ll see the U.S.
motto E pluribus unum (“Out of many, one”).
Finally, we still use Roman numerals. The Romans used a system of letters to
write numbers. In the Roman numeral system, the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and
M represent 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000. You may have seen Roman
numerals used on clocks, sundials, and the first pages of books. You might
also spot Roman numerals on buildings and in some movie and television
credits to show the year in which they were made.
Section 6 - The Legacy of Roman Philosophy, Law, and Citizenship
Roman philosophy [philosophy: the study of wisdom, knowledge, and the nature of reality] , law, and ideas
about citizenship were greatly influenced by the Greeks. But the Romans made contributions of their own that they passed
on to future generations.
A Philosophy Called Stoicism A Greek school of thought
that was especially popular in Rome was Stoicism (STOH-ihkism). Many upper-class Romans adopted this philosophy and
made it their own. Stoics believed that a divine (godly)
intelligence ruled all of nature. A person’s soul was a spark of
that divine intelligence. “Living rightly” meant living in a way
that agreed with nature.
To the Stoics, the one truly good thing in life was to have a good
character. This meant having virtues such as self-control and
courage. Stoics prized duty and the welfare of their community
over personal comfort. Roman Stoics were famous for bearing
pain and suffering bravely and quietly. To this day, we call
someone who behaves in this way “stoic.”
Law and Justice Roman law covered marriages,
inheritances, and contracts (agreements) between people, as
well as countless other areas of daily life. Modern legal codes in
European countries like France and Italy are based in part on
ancient Roman laws.
Another legacy of the Romans was the Roman idea of justice.
The Romans believed that there was a universal law of justice
that came from nature. By this natural law, every person had
rights. Judges in Roman courts tried to make just, or fair,
decisions that respected people’s rights.
Like people everywhere, the Romans did not always live up to
their ideals. Their courts did not treat the poor or slaves equally
with the rich. Emperors often made laws simply because they
had the power to do so. But the ideals of Roman law and justice
live on. For example, the ideas of natural law and natural rights
are echoed in the Declaration of Independence. Modern-day judges, like judges in Roman courts, often make decisions
based on ideals of justice as well as on written law. Similarly, many people around the world believe that all humans have
basic rights that no written law can take away.
Citizenship When Rome first began expanding its power in Italy, to be a “Roman” was to be a citizen of the city-state of
Rome. Over time, however, Rome’s leaders gradually extended citizenship to all free people in the empire. Even someone
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born in Syria, in Southwest Asia, or in Gaul (modern-day France) could claim to be Roman. All citizens were subject to
and protected by Roman law, enjoyed the same rights, and owed allegiance (loyalty) to the emperor.
The idea of citizenship as both a privilege and a responsibility has descended from Roman times to our own. While most
people in the United States are citizens by birth, many immigrants become citizens by solemnly promising loyalty to the
United States. Regardless of where they were born, all citizens have the same responsibilities. For example, they must
obey the law. And all enjoy the same basic rights spelled out in the Constitution and its amendments, including the Bill of
Rights.
Summary
In this chapter, you explored the rich legacy of ancient Rome. The Roman Empire fell more than 1,500
years ago. But it left a lasting influence throughout Western culture that you experience nearly every day.
Art, Architecture, and Engineering Artists still follow Roman styles in sculpture, mosaics, glass, and other art
forms. Roman influences are seen in the arches, domes, and vaults of many modern churches, banks, and government
buildings. The Romans also were talented engineers, whose construction methods and standards lasted thousands of
years.
Language and Writing Many words and word parts in modern languages, including English, French, and Spanish,
developed from the Roman language, Latin. Roman numerals appear today on clocks, in books, and in TV and movie
credits.
Philosophy, Law, and Citizenship Roman ideals, such as the philosophy of Stoicism, rule of law, and justice, shaped
the law codes and government structures of many nations today. Examples of the continuing influence of Roman ideas
include today's law courts, written law, such as the U.S. Constitution, and our representative government.
Enrichment Essay - What Is History?
What is history? This question may seem really easy, even silly. Most people would say that history is the study of the
important people, dates, and events of the past. This answer is true as far as it goes. But who decides what people, dates,
and events are important? And why should we bother learning about them?
Let’s dig a little deeper into the question “What is history?” First of all, history is an important way of thinking about the
world. To see what this means, imagine waking up tomorrow and not being able to remember a single thing about your
past. You can’t remember your name, who your parents or family members are, the rules to your favorite game, or
anything you ever learned in school.
Without a knowledge of your own past, you might feel lost and lonely. You wouldn’t even know who you are. And you
would have a difficult time making good decisions about what to do next.
In a similar way, history helps us make sense of the world. History is the memory of communities, peoples, and nations.
Without history, individuals and whole countries would lose their sense of direction. The next time you watch the news on
TV, notice how often reporters, politicians, and others mention something about the past. Humans constantly use their
knowledge of the past to help them make sense of what is happening today.
History is also an academic discipline. It is a systematic way of using evidence to make sense of the past.
When you think about it, the past is not an easy thing to study. After all, it’s not here any longer for anyone to observe
directly. So historians turn to many kinds of evidence to describe and understand the past. They’re fascinated by old
documents, maps, tools, ruins, and many other kinds of evidence. They want to know who created these things and for
what reason, and what they can teach us about the past.
History as an Ongoing Argument
Some people think that history is just a listing of facts. That is not true.
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To make sense of the past, historians must weigh the available evidence and try to figure out what the facts are. Then they
need to stitch the facts together to answer the questions that interest them. In doing this, they must use their judgment.
And that means that their own viewpoints come into play.
As a result, historians argue all the time. They argue about what the facts really are. They also argue about how to interpret
the facts.
History, then, is much more than a listing of “facts.” Some people have even described history as an ongoing argument
about the past. Why does the argument go on? Sometimes historians find new evidence, such as an ancient document or a
new archeological discovery. The new evidence may lead them to challenge old interpretations. Sometimes historians take
a fresh look at existing evidence and see things that others have overlooked. As they do so, they may correct an earlier
historian’s error or explain events in a different way.
Reading History
Our discussion leads to some key points about how to read history. You can’t just assume that what you’re reading is the
final truth. If you read more than one version of history, you are likely to find differences. So when you read history, ask
yourself these questions:
• Who wrote this document?
• When was it written?
• What kinds of evidence does the author use?
• Is the evidence reliable?
• Is the author trying to promote a particular viewpoint?
An Example of a Historical Argument
Let’s look at one example of a historical argument. In History Alive! The Medieval World and Beyond, you will learn about
the Scientific Revolution. Most textbooks say that the Scientific Revolution began in western Europe with a man named
Copernicus. In the early 1500s, Copernicus proposed a startling idea. In his day, most people believed that Earth was the
center of the universe, and that it didn’t move. Copernicus suggested that Earth and the other planets travel around the
sun.
How did Copernicus come up with his idea? Textbooks will tell you that he studied the work of a man named Ptolemy.
Ptolemy had described a picture of the universe back in the second century c.e. In Ptolemy’s description, Earth was the
center of the universe. But Ptolemy had trouble explaining the observed motions of the planets in the heavens. To make
his picture of the universe work, he had to build a number of complications into his theory.
Copernicus thought that Ptolemy’s account was overly complicated. He argued that things fell into place more simply if
Earth and other planets traveled around the sun. Today we know that Copernicus was correct, and he is often honored as
the father of the Scientific Revolution.
That’s a neat and tidy story. But is it the whole story? Some historians have pointed out that Copernicus may not have
come up with his ideas completely on his own. Instead, he may have found important clues in the work of Muslim
scientists.
Muslims are followers of Islam, one of the world’s great religions. In History Alive! The Medieval World and Beyond, you
will learn that Muslims built an advanced culture during the Middle Ages. After the fall of Rome, learning declined in
western Europe. But in the Middle East and Spain, Muslim scholars preserved ancient texts, including the works of
Ptolemy. Eventually they passed on much of this learning to western Europe.
Muslim scholars also made many advances of their own. And, according to some historians, the work of a Muslim scholar
may have inspired Copernicus.
The Muslim scholar was Ibn al-Shatir. Writing in the 14th century, he noted some of the problems in Ptolemy’s theory. His
mathematical arguments are very close to some that Copernicus used later on. Historians know that Ibn al-Shatir’s text
found its way to Rome sometime in the 1400s. What’s more, Copernicus once studied in Rome.
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These facts raise an interesting possibility. Did Copernicus see Ibn al-Shatir’s work? If so, did he use it in criticizing
Ptolemy? Or did Copernicus just happen to come up with the same ideas?
Copernicus’s writings don’t mention Ibn al-Shatir. So we lack proof that he knew about the Muslim scientist’s work. What
we have are two facts, plus some logic.
The first fact is that a Muslim text closely resembles some of what Copernicus did. The second fact is that Copernicus
could have seen this text. The logical argument is that the similarity is not a coincidence. In other words, it is likely that
Copernicus learned from Ibn al-Shatir’s work.
Some historians favor this argument. Others argue that Copernicus could have come up with his ideas on his own. They
point out that the history of science has many examples of discoveries being made independently by different people.
This is the way history often works. Sometimes the evidence doesn’t allow us to say for sure what happened. Then we are
left with probabilities--what is more or less likely. In reading history, it’s up to us to look at the evidence and the
arguments and to make our best judgment about who is right.
Conclusion
We started with a simple question: What is history? As you have seen, this question has many answers. History is a study
of the past. It is a way of making sense of the world. It is an academic discipline. It is a combination of facts and
interpretations of facts. It is also an ongoing argument that changes as new evidence is uncovered. And that is the most
exciting thing of all, because it means that history is very much alive.
Enrichment Essay - Tips on Using Your Library or Media Center
Never before in history has there been so much information available for research. Knowing how to access, evaluate, and
analyze materials available in your school’s library or media center is a key skill.
Your teacher may assign one of the Internet projects that relate directly to this program. If so, your teacher will identify
excellent Web sites that you can trust to complete the assignment. Similarly, your teacher may want you to search the
Internet for more information about a specific topic. Your teacher might have you begin your search at
www.historyalive.com. There you will find a few carefully selected Web sites to assist in your research.
Your teacher might also decide to give you an open-ended research project. In this kind of project, you’ll need to find
information yourself. Here are some ideas to help you navigate the resources that are available to you.
Research Steps
1. Carefully review the assignment and define your research topic. Your teacher may assign a topic or allow you
to pick one. The important thing at the start of your research is to know exactly what you’re expected to do. Don’t go to the
library or media center without the project requirements. They are your guide.
In selecting topics, you may want to begin by browsing in general works like a textbook or encyclopedia. These sources will
help you identify topics for which a lot of information is available.
2. Identify many possible sources. Spend some time browsing in the card catalogue (or database) or looking over the
library’s shelves to identify books that might be helpful. Remember that you may find your topic in books about a broader
subject. For example, suppose you’re researching the Battle of Gettysburg. Looking only for whole books about Gettysburg
would limit your sources. That one battle is certain to be discussed in books that cover the Civil War in general. For more
current topics, look at the Guide to Periodical Literature. This reference work will help you find recent magazines and
newspaper articles. Using the Internet will also help in your search. Bookmark the most promising sites to refer back to.
3. Identify the best sources. Once you’ve listed possible sources, select those that will best help with your research
task. Keep in mind how much time you have to complete the project. Some sources will require you to spend much more
time gathering the information you need. Use newer books and articles when possible. Generally, newer sources are more
likely than older ones to reflect current research. Of course, this does not apply to primary sources (sources from the
period you are studying).
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4. Gather information from your sources. Once you have identified your sources, it is time to compile the
information you need. You may decide to take notes on note cards or binder paper. However you decide to do it, be sure to
go back to the project requirements as you gather information. Think of these two questions: (1) Which pieces of
information will help you complete the research task? (2) What is the best way to organize the information? Also write
down bibliography information as you research. That will save time and confusion at the end of your project.
5. Create the product. Sometimes you may have to write a paper. At other times, you may be required to produce a
poster, computer presentation, oral report, or other assignment. In all cases, keep in mind who your audience is. Strive to
create a product that meets the needs of the audience. Here’s a helpful hint: if something is interesting for you to write or
create, it is more likely to be interesting to your audience. If you are bored, your audience will be too. Adding visuals such
as pictures, graphs, maps, timelines, and artifacts will add interest to your presentation.
6. Reflect on what you have done. When your project is complete, stop and reflect. What did you learn about
researching a topic and presenting the results? What went well? How would you tackle the same task in the future? What
would you do differently?
Ideas About Sources
Library Books
1. Search for books in the card catalogue or on a computer terminal at your library. Either way, your search is the same.
Search by author, subject, or title.
2. Write down the call letters for books you want to find.
3. Besides doing a targeted search, browse the library’s collection of books about history. Ask the librarian where to find
the history section. Sometimes browsing can go faster than looking up titles in the card catalogue. This is because books
on similar topics in history are often placed side by side on the library shelves. If the library uses the Dewey decimal
system, history topics are in the 900 section.
4. When citing a book in a bibliography, follow the order and example below:
• author
• title of book
• city of publication
• publisher’s name
• year of publication
Example: Arburn, Michael. Learning History: An Adventure Worth Taking. New York: Random House, 2004.
Newspapers and Periodicals
1. Use newspapers and periodicals to study current events such as a recent Supreme Court decision.
2. Ask your librarian if your library subscribes to a Web-based article subscription service. If so, the service can link you to
thousands of articles from a wide variety of well-respected magazines and periodicals.
3. If your library subscribes to magazines or newspapers, search the Guide to Periodical Literature. Ask your librarian
where to find this resource. The Guide is arranged alphabetically by topic, so it is very easy to use.
4. When citing an article in a bibliography, follow the order and example below:
• author
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• article title
• magazine or newspaper
• date of publication
• page numbers of the article
Example: Adams, Steve. “Finding a Great Hotel in Paris.” Travel Magazine, July 2003: 38–42.
Internet Resources
The Internet is an amazing research tool. There are millions of Web sites to visit. However, not all Web sites are created
equal. Anybody can create a Web site and post information on it. Some sites are reliable. Others are not. Here are some
ideas on picking the best sites.
In evaluating Web sites, think about three questions:
1. Is the information from a reliable source?
• Ideally, you are looking for information from an expert source. An expert source is an authority on the subject you are
researching.
• Web sites that end in .edu are related to a school or college. Information on such sites can be very reliable, since it is
often created by researchers or scholars. On the other hand, schools may allow or encourage all students to post
information on a school-related Web site. Such material may or may not be accurate. Try to identify the qualifications of
the author before you use the information. For example, a history professor is likely to be a better source than a student or
someone with unknown qualifications.
• Web sites that end in .gov are related to government bodies. The information found on these sites can be some of the
most reliable on the Internet.
2. Is the information biased?
• A source is biased if the author has a certain opinion or prejudice that he or she wants to promote. In looking at Web
sites, it is very important to develop strong antennas to detect bias. On some Web sites, facts are far less important than
the author’s or group’s opinion.
• Social scientists call research that is free of bias “objective.” For most research projects, you will want to find objective
information. No writing is completely free of bias, but you should always be aware of possible biases. If the author is
careful to separate opinion from facts, your job is easier. Be on the lookout for opinions that are disguised as facts.
• Ask yourself what person or organization prepared the information. Why did they post it on the Internet? What is their
purpose? Are they trying to convince you of something?
3. Is the information accurate?
• To find this out, ask yourself these questions: (1) Is the information repeated on other sites or in other sources you are
using? Is the information based on recent research, or is it old and possibly outdated? Does the writer reveal where he or
she got the information? (Those who do not reveal their sources may not want their sources checked. This can be a sign of
bad scholarship.)
For ways to write bibliographic citations for Web sites, visit www.noodletools.com. There you will find ways to cite online
newspaper and magazine articles, personal Web pages, professional Web pages, and just about any source you can
imagine.
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