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Morphology Class 8 Inflection FS 2015 Rik van Gijn Contexts I: Inflection Goal of this class Learn about √ Criteria to distinguish inflection from derivation √ Types of inflection √ Another typological parameter: locus of marking Contexts I: Inflection Ideal picture Derivation Inflection Provides new lexemes Provides forms of lexemes Lexicon Syntax Contexts I: Inflection More realistic picture? Derivation Inflection Provides new lexemes Provides forms of lexemes Lexicon Syntax Contexts I: Inflection Types of words Grammatical word Lexical integrity Phonological word Domain phonological and prosodic rules Lexeme Distinction derivation and inflection Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Nature of meaning Change of category Regularity of meaning Productivity Position in the template Obligatoriness Relevance to syntax Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 1. Nature of meaning - Inflectional feature values + Derivational meanings Semantic content Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 1. Nature of meaning Inflectional features and their values Haspelmath & Sims 2010 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 1. Nature of meaning Inflectional features and their values Haspelmath & Sims 2010 Honorifics Comparative Voice Polarity Dependent verb forms Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 1. Nature of meaning Derivational meanings Diverse group. Some meanings are common cross-linguistically (e.g. agent noun, quality noun) but some are highly specific. Big Nambas dui navanel ‘man’ ‘road’ French pomme poire ‘apple’ pomm-ier ‘pear’ poir-ier Haspelmath & Sims 2010 dui-et navanel-et ‘sacred man’ ‘sacred road’ ‘apple tree’ ‘pear tree’ Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 1. Nature of meaning The criterion of meaning is a useful starting point, but as a decisive criterion, it has at least the following problems 1. It is rather difficult to decide on a cut-off point of semantic content in an objective way 2. For some languages it makes sense to call, say, voice morphology derivational; for other languages it may be more useful to call voice morphology inflectional see also number Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 2. Change of category One characteristic that one often encounters in derivational affixes, is that they change the lexical class category of the base they attach to. Inflectional affixes do not do this. Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 2. Change of category Some common derivational meanings Haspelmath & Sims 2010 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 2. Change of category However, derivation does not necessarily lead to other lexical classes. Haspelmath & Sims 2010 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 2. Change of category But: What is a category? Bauer: If we define category at the coarse level of noun, verb, adjective, then the criterion isolates some derivational affixes but fails to distinguish between the other derivational affixes and inflectional ones. If we work with an extremely delicate notion of category, it is not clear that the criterion will work at all. Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 3. Regularity of meaning The interpretation of inflectional markers is regular, that of derivational markers often is not Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 3. Regularity of meaning The interpretation of inflectional markers is regular, that of derivational markers often is not - Derivational markers with regular meaning, especially very productive ones, like -er and -able Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 3. Regularity of meaning The interpretation of inflectional markers is regular, that of derivational markers often is not - How do we determine meaning? Bauer (96): beaver-ette flannel-ette maison-ette kitchen-ette suffrag-ette usher-ette Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 3. Regularity of meaning The interpretation of inflectional markers is regular, that of derivational markers often is not - How do we determine meaning? Three meanings Bauer (96): beaver-ette flannel-ette maison-ette kitchen-ette suffrag-ette usher-ette i. small (as in kitchenette, maisonette), ii. female (as in suffragette, usherette) and iii. mock material (as in beaverette, flannelette). Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 3. Regularity of meaning The interpretation of inflectional markers is regular, that of derivational markers often is not - How do we determine meaning? Three meanings Bauer (96): beaver-ette flannel-ette maison-ette kitchen-ette suffrag-ette usher-ette i. small (as in kitchenette, maisonette), ii. female (as in suffragette, usherette) and iii. mock material (as in beaverette, flannelette). One meaning Diminutive = 'small in size' but can, in our society, imply one of two things: i. delicacy (as with women) or ii. inferior quality (as with the materials and - possibly - with the women). Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity Inflection is productive, derivation is semi-productive What is productivity? Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity What is productivity? (Lieber 2009) warm true warmth truth modern modernity pure purity happy dark happiness darkness -th attaches to adjectives, and creates nouns. For a base meaning ‘X’, the derived noun means ‘the state of being X’. -ity attaches to adjectives, and creates nouns. For a base meaning ‘X’, the derived noun means ‘the state of being X’. -ness attaches to adjectives, and creates nouns. For a base meaning ‘X’, the derived noun means ‘the state of being X’. Contexts I: Inflection Exercise 1 lovely cool crude evil googleable rustic musty inconsequential feline toxic bovine How would you form a noun from these adjectives meaning ‘the state of being X’ (where X refers to the quality expressed in the adjective) choosing between one of the suffixes -th, -ness, and -ity. Did you use one of the three far more or far less often than the other(s)? Can you come up with an explanation as to why that is? (Source: Lieber 2009) Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity What is productivity? A morphological pattern or rule is productive if it can be applied to new bases to create new words - Productivity is a relative notion Productivity is a synchronic notion Productivity ≠ Frequency Productivity ≠ Analyzability Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity What is productivity? A morphological pattern or rule is productive if it can be applied to new bases to create new words - Productivity is a relative notion Productivity is a synchronic notion Productivity ≠ Frequency Productivity ≠ Analyzability Comparative % of first citations of -dom per Century (Lieber 2009) Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity Factors contributing to productivity segmentability compositionality the (cultural-historical) needs of a society restrictions on base - categorial - other Lieber 2009: 61 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity Factors contributing to productivity segmentability compositionality the (cultural-historical) needs of a society restrictions on base - categorial - other Lieber 2009: 61 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity Examples of restrictions Phonological restrictions Semantic restrictions Etymological restrictions Haspelmath & Sims 2010 e.g. * Bäum-in is nonsensical Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity Inflection is productive, derivation is semi-productive - Some derivational affixes (like -able) are very productive - Some inflectional affixes are not fully productive (e.g. deponent verbs see for instance modal verbs in English which do not take -s or -ing) - But base definition is generally simpler (i.e. in terms of categorial restrictions) for inflection than for derivation Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 4. Productivity Inflection is productive, derivation is semi-productive - Some derivational affixes (like -able) are very productive - Some inflectional affixes are not fully productive (e.g. deponent verbs see for instance modal verbs in English which do not take -s or -ing) - But base definition is generally simpler (i.e. in terms of categorial restrictions) for inflection than for derivation The definition of the base is more likely to be just categorial for inflection than for derivation; derivation is more likely to require further specification. Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 5. Position in template derivation is closer to the root than inflection 1. Statistical tendency not criterial (one needs an apriori decision about what is derivational and inflectional) 2. Counterexamples: interest·ed·ly exaggerate·d·ly report·ed·ly accord ·ing·ly lov·ing·ness bound ·ed ·ness for·giv·ing·ness startl-ing·ness Bauer 2003 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 6. Monomorphemic replacability Derivational constructions can be replaced by monomorphemic forms inflected forms can’t Patriot-ism is good for a nation Oil is good for a nation Lee always arrives at noon *Lee always come at noon Bauer 2003 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 6. Monomorphemic replacability Derivational constructions can be replaced by monomorphemic forms inflected forms can’t Relates to obligatoriness Inflectional features are obligatorily expressed on all applicable word-forms. Derivational meanings are not obligatorily expressed Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 6. Monomorphemic replacability Derivational constructions can be replaced by monomorphemic forms inflected forms can’t - Fails in inflectional languages - Optionality of inflection (e.g. optional case marking) Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 7. Relevance to syntax Inflection is relevant to syntax, derivation is not. Government: the situation where a word (typically a verb or adposition) requires another word to have a particular inflectional value. Agreement Haspelmath & Sims 2010 Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 7. Relevance to syntax Inflection is relevant to syntax, derivation is not. Agreement: Some systematic covariation between a semantic or formal property of one element and a formal property of another. Steele (1978: 610). Corbett 2008:5 domain controller target the system works feature: number value: singular Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 7. Relevance to syntax Inflection is relevant to syntax, derivation is not. Agreement: Some systematic covariation between a semantic or formal property of one element and a formal property of another. Steele (1978:610). Contexts I: Inflection Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection 7. Relevance to syntax Inflection is relevant to syntax, derivation is not. What about tense, aspect, mood, etc.? Consecutio temporum (predetermination) I want to buy a car He said that he wanted to buy a car Contexts I: Inflection Exercise 2 3. One might ask whether the English deadjectival adverb-forming pattern (nice >> nicely) is inflectional or derivational. Apply the criteria discussed in class (repeated below) and try to form an opinion on this question. Source: Haspelmath & Sims 2010 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Nature of meaning Change of category Regularity of meaning Productivity Position in the template Obligatoriness Relevance to syntax Contexts I: Inflection Inflection versus derivation: two opposed views and a compromise The distinction between inflection and derivation is sharp The distinction between inflection and derivation is gradient Contexts I: Inflection Inflection versus derivation: two opposed views and a compromise The distinction between inflection and derivation is sharp Proponents of a dichotomy approach to the distinction between derivation and inflection usually emphasize relevance to syntax as the all-important criterion, and often also obligatoriness and generalized application. These scholars are usually proponents of the split-morphology view, in which derivation and compounding takes place in the lexicon, and inflection only after syntax. Derivation & compounding Syntax Inflection The distinction between inflection and derivation is gradient Contexts I: Inflection Inflection versus derivation: two opposed views and a compromise The distinction between inflection and derivation is sharp inflection derivation Grammatical meaning + + + + + - - Does not change lexical category + + + + - - - Regular meaning + + - + - - - Productive + + + + + + - Outmost template position + + + - - - - Obligatory + - + + + + - Relevant to syntax + + + - - - - Gradience proponents say that, like with so many linguistic phenomena there is a prototypical or canonical notion of both derivation and inflection, and accept that they fade into each other in the middle. The distinction between inflection and derivation is gradient Contexts I: Inflection Inflection versus derivation: two opposed views and a compromise The distinction between inflection and derivation is sharp Inherent versus contextual inflection Inherent inflection: inflection that is relevant to the syntax, but which conveys some independent information as well (e.g. tense, aspect, number on nouns, some peripheral case markers) Contextual inflection: required by the syntactic context (government and agreement) The distinction between inflection and derivation is gradient Contexts I: Inflection Another typological parameter for contextual inflection Locus of marking Syntactic head - Contains the crucial semantic information: it determines the meaning and class of the entire constituent -Has the same distribution as the entire constituent -Can normally not be left out -Selects dependents Contexts I: Inflection Another typological parameter for contextual inflection Locus of marking Head Dependent adposition object NP verb arguments Possessed NP Possessor NP Noun Adjective The question to answer for Locus of Marking is: if there is any morphological marking (contextual inflection) indicating the relation between head and dependent (case, agreement), where does it appear? Contexts I: Inflection Another typological parameter for contextual inflection Locus of marking: where does contextual information appear? head-marking: on the head dependent-marking: on the dependent double marking: on both no marking: there is no contextual inflection for the relation on head or dependent Contexts I: Inflection Exercise 3 Indicate for the relation between verb and subject (and between verb and object if relevant) what the locus of marking pattern is Tzutujil (Guatemala) nuuyon x-ø-in-b’an I.alone TENSE-3SG-1SG-make ‘I alone built the house.’ Eastern Pomo (California) bu:ráqal-là: mí:p-al bear-SUBJ 3s-OBJ ‘A bear killed him.’ ša:k’-a kill-INDIC ja the jaay house Contexts I: Inflection Exercise 3 Indicate for the relation between verb and subject (and between verb and object if relevant) what the locus of marking pattern is Yup’ik (Alaska) qikmigh-ma negh-aa dog-ERG.1S eat-IND3S-3S ‘My dog ate the fish.’ Eastern Kayah (Thailand, Burma) ?a chu ?a thwi 3S stab 3S hond ‘He stabbed his (own) dog.’ kayu-ø fish-ABS Contexts I: Inflection Recapitulation Learn about √ Criteria to distinguish inflection from derivation √ Types of inflection √ Another typological parameter: locus of marking