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CHAPTER ONE
ORIGINS OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
CHAPTER OUTLINE
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
THE EARLY THINKERS
The Roots of Modern Science
Linnaeus and the Natural Scheme of Life
THE ROAD TO THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
The Uniformitarianists: Hutton and Lyell
THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
The Galápagos
Refining the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Insights and Advances: Darwin versus Wallace?
THE RESPONSE TO DARWIN
SCIENCE AND CREATIONISM
Insights and Advances: What is Intelligent Design?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Based on thorough reading and careful consideration of Chapter One, students should be able to:
1.
Discuss the process of science, including observation, hypothesis formulation, and experimentation.
2.
Explain how the scientific method is an empirical process and self-correcting.
3.
Explain the roots of modern science and the concept of evolution; explain catastrophism versus
uniformitarianism. Discuss the conflicting viewpoints of Bishop Usher, Georges Cuvier, Georges Buffon,
James Hutton, and Charles Lyell.
4.
Compare and contrast Jean Baptiste de Lamarck's view of evolution and heredity with those of Charles
Darwin and Alfred Wallace. Understand why Lamarck's views may have been more popular in his time.
5.
Identify the contributions of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace to evolutionary theory.
6.
Describe the process and provide examples of natural selection including those from the Galapagos Islands.
7.
Critique Louis Agassiz’s response to Darwin and Wallace’s theory of Natural Selection.
8.
Debate the tenets of Creation science and how they differ from the process of modern science.
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LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS
Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the
classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely
on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so
that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions
about the topics.
1.
Lecture on evolution. Be sure to talk about both the special theory of Evolution (individual variation and
microevolution) and the general theory of Evolution (macroevolution). You could comment on both the
monophyletic and polyphyletic schools of thought in macroevolution.
You may be able to incorporate a discussion of some of the recent findings about cloning and what
this contributes to our understanding of evolutionary processes. Students will likely be interested in the ethical
issues involved in manipulating evolutionary processes.
You might also include a discussion of the scientific method in this chapter, including its
procedures and limitations. It can only deal with questions that are potentially or actually repeatable. Its
steps are: (1) observation; (2) question or problem; (3) hypothesis/null hypothesis; (4) gathering
data/methodology; and (5) formation of a conclusion. Stress the equal importance of honest and effective
methodology and conclusion formation. Describe the process of theory formation, a hypothesis supported
by a large body of observations confirmed by many independent investigators.
As part of this lecture, describe how good theory formation (1) explains or shows relationships
among facts; (2) simplifies; (3) clarifies; (4) grows to relate additional facts, which means it is always
tentative in scope; (5) predicts new facts and relationships; and (6) does not explain too much. Theory
becomes a scientific law if it possesses a high degree of certainty and is widely accepted within the
scientific community. Stress to students that science is never finished; scientific fact is an accurate
description of an object or event based on what we know and what we know how to do. It is not an absolute
finality.
You may also take the opportunity to discuss patterns of deductive and inductive logic. Talk about
proof and rigor of proof in science. Be sure to emphasize that when we extrapolate from proven scientific
theory, it is only supposition, not scientific fact. An interesting book on the uses of science and
pseudoscience within the context of archaeology is Kenneth L. Feder's Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries:
Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology.
2.
A lecture on problem solving would follow naturally from one on the scientific method. Present it as a
methodology we can use when the scientific method is not appropriate. One problem-solving strategy is to:
(1) identify the problem; (2) state the goal; (3) list the constraints and assumptions; (4) suggest possible
solutions; (5) judge suggested solutions and decide which one to test; and (6) test and implement your best
solution. Use this model to analyze some current local, state, or national problem.
3.
Natural selection provides direction to evolutionary change, yet students often have trouble grasping the
concept. Discuss examples of natural selection in detail and explore what "fitness" means in evolutionary
terms.
4.
Most anthropologists use the terms scientific creationism and creationism interchangeably. However, in the
Religious Studies discipline those two terms mean different things. Creation science can refer to the school of
thought known as theistic evolutionism. Scientists in this school believe in both God and evolution. God is accepted
as the ultimate origin of all life, and evolution is seen as the "footprints" of the creative process. Theistic
evolutionists would say that God provides the "why" and evolution the "how" of life. The author provides a
thorough explanation of the shortcomings of creation science. The American Scientific Affiliation has material on
this topic. Some books that show a variety of viewpoints are listed in the resources for this chapter. The debate is
not between scientific facts and the Bible, but between certain biblical interpretations and certain scientific
extrapolations.
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CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1.
Have students share their cosmologies and origin myths. Talk about similarities and differences in the ones
expressed. As always with such discussions, it is necessary to establish a neutral atmosphere, with
acceptance and patience for hearing others' ideas.
2.
Invite a biologist into class to lecture about a biological understanding of evolution. Check your library or
rental catalogs for films on evolution and natural selection, DNA, molecular genetics, population genetics,
and punctuated equilibrium versus the gradualistic theory of speciation. Such films can often provide visual
explanations that are clearer and more complete than simple lecture or text information.
3.
Arrange students into groups of four or five and have them use the problem-solving method (outlined in
Lecture and Discussion topic #2) to analyze a problem or issue facing their community. Then have the
groups come together and share their results.
4.
Have your students read the 1858 paper titled “ON THE TENDENCY OF VARIETIES TO DEPART
INDEFINITELY FROM THE ORIGINAL TYPE, by Alfred Wallace.” You may find this paper at the
following website: http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S043.htm. Students should then compare
Wallace’s conclusions to those of Darwin and Natural Selection. Have them report their findings.
5.
Discuss the students' various religious and nonreligious beliefs about the origins of life. Emphasize again
the importance for tolerance in listening to other students' points of view. Further discuss the concept of
Intelligent Design and how it is an intellectual, if not scientific approach to evolutionary change.
RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS
Encourage your students to utilize the free tool OneSearch with Research Navigator™, included with this
textbook as a supplement. They will have to register to use this service. Once registered, students can use
this tool to research the Internet to find valid sources for research papers, saving them much time in their
efforts to identify relevant sources.
1.
Have students research an origin myth that is not their own using library sources and/or interviewing. Have
them compare and contrast this myth with their own and explain how they reconcile competing claims of
truth. It may be presented in written or oral form.
2.
Have students complete written or oral biographical reports on one of the following men and how their
scientific ideas contributed to Western thought: Georges Cuvier, Georges Buffon, James Hutton, Charles
Lyell, Charles Darwin, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, Gregor Mendel, or Alfred Wallace.
3.
Assign each student to devise an experiment using the scientific method. The experiment should be left to
the student to decide. Ask them to go into some detail at each stage of the scientific method.
4.
Divide the class into two parts and have half of the students research punctuated equilibrium while the other
half researches gradualistic theories of speciation. Have each group present its theoretical model and then
debate the issue with the other group.
5.
Have your students research scientific creation science, evolutionism, theistic evolutionism, and
creationism. In written or oral reports, or in a debate, have students defend a position they do not hold.
Monitor, in a brief essay or opinion poll, how the students' opinions may have changed based on what they
have learned in the chapter.
6.
Invite a geographer or geologist to guest lecture about plate tectonics and continental drift. Use one of the
films listed under Resources below to illustrate these points.
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7.
Invite proponents of biological evolutionism, scientific creationism, and theistic evolutionism/creationism
into your class. After each gives a short presentation of his or her views, they could engage in a debate in
which students could participate. Discuss the Scopes trial and the controversy that marks the publication of
biology textbooks in certain states.
PRINT RESOURCES
BROOKS, J.L. 1999. Just Before the Origin: Alfred Wallace’s Theory of Evolution. iUniverse.
BROWNE, JANET. 1996. Charles Darwin: Voyaging. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
2002. Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
DARWIN, C.R. [1859] 1975. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection; or, The Preservation of the
Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. New York: Cambridge University Press.
FUTUYMA, DOUGLAS J. 1995. Science on Trial: The Case for Evolution. Sinauer Associates, Reprint Edition.
GOULD, STEPHEN JAY. 1997. Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin. Three Rivers Press;
Reprint Edition.
1990. Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History. New York: Norton.
1996. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton.
SHERMER, M. 2006. Why Darwin Matters. Henry Holt and Co., New York.
SPROUL, BARBARA. 1979. Primal Myths: Creating the World. New York: Harper & Row.
WEINER, J. 1995. The Beak of the Finch. New York: Vintage Books; Reprint Edition.
FILMS, VIDEOS, AND OTHER NONPRINT RESOURCES
Films from Penn State Audio-Visual Services, (Phone: 800/826-0132) unless otherwise noted:
Continental Drift: The Theory of Plate Tectonics (21 minutes)
Drifting of the Continents (51 minutes)
The Living Machine (60 minutes) University of Minnesota
The Living Planet: A Portrait of the Earth: 1--Building of the Earth Parts 1 and 2 (57 minutes)
The Not-So-Solid Earth (30 minutes)
Quest for Fire, feature film.
Charles Darwin (24 minutes) University of Minnesota, 800/847-8251
Darwin's Finches (11 minutes)
The Day the Universe Changed: 8--Darwin's Revolution (53 minutes)
Evolution and the Origin of Life (36 minutes)
Evolution: Origins of Change, 1-Heredity and Mutation (21 minutes)
The Evidence of Evolution (30 minutes) 1987. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.
RESEARCH NAVIGATOR™ EXERCISES
1.
Please review the following website dedicated to the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador: http://www.galapagosislands.net/. What features of this island chain made it the “perfect” biological study area for Charles
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Darwin? What if Darwin had not “run across” this island chain? Would Alfred Wallace now be known as
the author of Natural Selection?
2.
Plate tectonics and the concept of continental drift have explained much geological phenomenon. Look at
the map of the plates on the following website:
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/tectonic_plates.html. How can an understanding of the
movement of the various plates lead to an understanding of geological processes affecting biological
evolution?
3.
Look at the website on embryonic development at the following website:
http://www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html#EmbryonicDevelopment. What is the
meaning of the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny?” Why is this statement an oversimplification of
the process of embryonic development? How does the presentation of this website refute ‘creationism?”
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TEST QUESTIONS
Chapter 1
Origins of Evolutionary Thought
1. What was the result of the Scopes Monkey Trial?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Scopes was found guilty of teaching evolution and lost his job
the state of Tennessee was forced to allow the teaching of evolution
evolution was disproved
Scopes was found innocent
(Answer a; page 15)
2. Today, federal courts uphold the idea that ___________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
evolution should not be taught in public schools
the Old Testament is the most accurate source of information about the Earth’s past
evolution is the unifying principle of the life sciences
none of these
(Answer c; page 15)
3. Science is a(n) _________, not a __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
result/ process
process/ method
process/ result
observation/ hypothesis
(Answer c; page 16)
4. Science is a perfect process because data are always interpreted the same way.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 16)
5. Which of the following is an element of the scientific method?
a.
b.
c.
d.
experimentation
observation
hypothesis
all of these
(Answer d; page 15)
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6. In science, a preliminary explanation is known as a(n) _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
experiment
hypothesis
datum
paradigm
(Answer b; page 16)
7. Scientific hypotheses are __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
derived from a non-empirical process
rarely tested
always assumed to be true
falsifiable
(Answer d; page 17)
8. To say that a hypothesis is falsifiable is to say that it is _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
testable
false
proven
simple
(Answer a; page 17)
9. Which of the following best characterizes Aristotle’s view of nature?
a.
b.
c.
d.
natural forms may change as they adapt to environmental conditions
each living form possesses a fixed essence that cannot be altered
life forms change in constant yet unpredictable ways
animals transform over time, but plants do not
(Answer b; page 17)
10. Aristotle believed in the “immutability of species.” This means he felt that species _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
are always changing
change only when it is adantageous
are fixed
change sporadically and unpredictably
(Answer c; page 17)
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11. Early natural philosophers like Aristotle and Plato considered themselves the first real scientists.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 17)
12. Which of the following is inconsistent with Aristotle’s ideas about nature?
a.
b.
c.
d.
life-forms are always changing
humans are at the top of a “Great Chain of Being”
all life is arranged in an orderly and hierarchical fashion
all of these
(Answer a; page 17)
13. During the Middle Ages, the idea of fixity of species was finally abandoned.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 17)
14. The dominant paradigm during the European Middle Ages was based on _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
science
falsifiability
theology
empirical experimentation
(Answer c; page 17)
15. The foundation was laid for the establishment of an academic discipline devoted to a scientific understanding of
the human condition during the _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Middle Ages
late nineteenth century
Renaissance
early twentieth century
(Answer c; page 17)
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16. Through their “rediscovery” of ancient Greek and Roman thinkers, Renaissance scholars developed a strong
sense of _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
time and cultural variation
the fixity of species
human’s superiority in nature
monogenism
(Answer a; page 17)
17. _________ was probably the first true scientist in the modern sense,
a.
b.
c.
d.
Darwin
Galen
Aristotle
Da Vinci
(Answer d; page 18)
18. The main contribution of Renaissance scientists/artists Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius was their
_________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
study of the stars and planets
discovery of the New World
idea of polygenism
anatomical drawings
(Answer d; pages 17, 18)
19. The discovery of the New World provided Renaissance scholars their first look at _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
many exotic plant species
a greater range of human biological variation
a greater range of human cultural variation
all of these
(Answer d; page 18)
20. In 1537, Pope Paul III declared the New World Natives as “nonhuman.”
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 18)
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21. Sixteenth century scholars who argued for polygenism were _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
rewarded by the Church
ignored
imprisoned or burned
celebrated
(Answer c; page 18)
22. The idea that there is a single, divine origin of humanity is called _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
monogenism
polygenism
evolution
fixity of species
(Answer a; page 18)
23. Which is more aligned with the view of nature common to the Middle Ages?
a. polygenism
b. monogenism
(Answer b; page 18)
24. Archbishop James Ussher calculated the age of the Earth using _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
geologic evidence
astronomical data
the Bible
ancient Greek and Roma texts
(Answer c; page 18)
25. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, classification took precedence over questions of origins.
a. True
b. False
(Answer a; page 18)
26. Scientists in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were mostly interested in
a.
b.
c.
d.
.
evolution
polygenism
classification
chemistry
(Answer c; page 18)
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27. In The Starry Messenger, Galileo _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
proved Church doctrine
supported the theory of evolution
supported the idea that the earth is at the center of the universe
proved Copernicus’ sun-centered theory of a century earlier
(Answer d; pages 18, 19)
28. Despite evidence from Galileo, Newton, and Kepler, the Church has never changed its position on the Earth’s
position at the center of the universe.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 19)
29. The first naturalist to employ the terms genus and species was _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
John Ray
Carolus Linnaeus
Charles Darwin
Edward Tyson
(Answer a; page 19)
30. _________ is the science of classifying and naming living things.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Monogenesis
Evolution
Taxonomy
Natural selection
(Answer c; page 19)
31. Who is most associated with the taxonomy used by scientists today?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Carolus Linnaeus
Georges Cuvier
Comte de Buffon
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
(Answer a; page 19)
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32. A taxonomy is made up of discrete units called _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
species
nomenclatures
particles
taxons
(Answer d; page 19)
33. The use of the two-level genus-species labels is known as “binomial nomenclature.”
a. True
b. False
(Answer a; page 19)
34. Comte de Buffon _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
invented binomial nomenclature
accepted the notion of biological change
offered several theories about the mechanisms of biological change
all of these
(Answer b; page 20)
35. Which of the following naturalists is associated with the idea of catastrophism?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Lamarck
Cuvier
de Buffon
Lyell
(Answer b; page 20)
36. Which of the following is most consistent with the idea of catastrophism?
a.
b.
c.
d.
animals inheriting transformations from their parents
the reproduction of well adapted variations
a disaster wiping out the dinosaurs
life forms slowly transforming through time in reaction to changing environmental
conditions
(Answer c; page 20)
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37. Who among the following naturalists was NOT a supporter of evolutionary change?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
Comte de Buffon
George Cuvier
(Answer d; page 20)
38. Lamarckianism holds that _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
creatures transform and their offspring inherit those transformations
all species are fixed
random mutations provide a variation pool from which nature selects
none of these
(Answer a; page 20)
39. Lamarck’s ideas are generally accepted by biologists today.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 21)
40. Trofim Lysenko pioneered the failed Soviet attempt to apply _________ ideas to real-life agricultural practices.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Darwin’s
Cuvier’s
Lamarck’s
Ray’s
(Answer c; page 21)
41. James Hutton is associated with _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Lysenkoism
catastrophism
uniformitarianism
adaptive radiation
(Answer c; page 22)
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42. Which of the following statements best defines the idea of uniformitarianism?
a.
b.
c.
d.
all species are fixed and unchanging
the world is periodically destroyed by divine catastrophes
the geologic processes that drive the world today have always done so
creatures transform and their offspring inherit those transformations
(Answer c; page 22)
43. While geological uniformitarianism was introduced by
.
a.
b.
c.
d.
, it was greatly popularized by
Lyell/ Darwin
Hutton/ Lyell
Lamarck/ Lyell
Ray/ Hutton
(Answer b; page 22)
44. Despite his association with uniformitarianism, Lyell was still an ardent creationist.
a. True
b. False
(Answer a; page 22)
45. Charles Darwin was a lackluster student who considered joining the ministry of the Church of England.
a. True
b. False
(Answer a; page 22)
46. Darwin’s role aboard the HMS Beagle was _________.
a. cook
b. captain
c. steward
d. naturalist
(Answer d; page 23)
47. Darwin’s ideas fell into place while contemplating _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
horses from Patagonia
eagles from the Andes
finches from the Galapagos Islands
giant tortoises from the African coast
(Answer c; page 25)
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48. Who is responsible for the discovery of differing bill shapes among Darwin’s finches?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Darwin himself
John Gould
Lamarck
Wallace
(Answer b; page 25)
49. Which of the following best defines adaptive radiation?
a.
b.
c.
d.
creatures transform and their offspring inherit those transformations
survival of the fittest
a process by which many species result from one ancient one
none of these define adaptive radiation
(Answer c; page 25)
50. What is the main difference between natural and artificial selection?
a.
b.
c.
d.
there is no difference
natural selection has no foresight
artificial selection doesn’t work
natural selection only selects the strongest creatures
(Answer b; page 26)
51. In the years following his journey on the Beagle, Darwin pursued his ideas of evolution by studying _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
artificial selection
animals he found on subsequent journeys
the works of Alfred Russel Wallace
all of these
(Answer a; page 26)
52. In what ways did Wallace differ from Darwin?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Wallace was from a working class family
Wallace collected specimens for wealthy patrons rather than for himself
Wallace left school at an early age
all of these
(Answer d; page 29)
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53. Wallace’s ideas differ from Darwin’s in that Wallace _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
rejected artificial selection as analogous to natural selection
insisted on the fixity of species
supported Lamarckian ideas
rejected evolution
(Answer a; page 28)
54. When Darwin presented his ideas to the Linnean Society, he _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
also presented Wallace’s ideas in a joint paper
never mentioned Wallace
described Wallace’s ideas as better than his own
revealed that he got all his own ideas from Wallace’s letter
(Answer a; page 28)
55. Upon its first publication, Darwin’s On the Origins of Species _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
was not widely read
quickly sold out
was written only for a scientific audience
was not popular with scientists
(Answer b; page 29)
56. Which of the following is NOT an observation associated with natural selection?
a.
b.
c.
d.
all organisms have the potential for explosive population growth
populations tend to be stable
nature is full of variation
creatures can will their own transformations
(Answer d; page 29)
57. Darwin deduced that, despite the potential for exponential population growth, many creatures don’t reach
adulthood.
a. True
b. False
(Answer a; page 29)
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58. Central to Darwin’s ideas is the observation that _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
populations have limited potential for growth
creatures within a species all tend to look the same
nature is full of variation
artificial selection bears no resemblance to natural selection
(Answer c; page 29)
59. Natural selection can be summarized by which statement?
a.
b.
c.
d.
all species are fixed
organisms transform and pass these transformations on to their offspring
a divine creator creates all species according to an unknowable plan
within a population, some variations are favored by environmental conditions and
others are not
(Answer d; pages 29)
60. When discussing natural selection, the term “fitness” is best thought of as _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
a reference to physical fitness
reproductive success
strength
none of these
(Answer b; page 29)
61. An organism’s fitness can be best measured by observing its
a.
b.
c.
d.
strength
size
number of offspring
color
(Answer c; page 29)
62. In order for evolution by natural selection to occur, _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
the trait in question must be inherited
the trait in question must vary between individuals
there must be environmental pressure
all of these
(Answer d; page 30)
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63. Whereas evolution happens at the level of the _________, natural selection occurs at the level of _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
population /individual organism
mutation/ population
individual organism / population
mutation/ DNA
(Answer a; page 31)
64. All scientists immediately accepted Darwin’s revolutionary ideas.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; pages 31)
65. All creationists believe that _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
species are fixed
the world is only 4,000 years old
a single divine creator made the world
today’s geology is the result of Noah’s flood
(Answer c; pages 31, 32)
66. The Bible is not considered scientific evidence because _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
its contents are not testable
it is so old
no one takes it literally
all of these
(Answer a; page 32)
67. “Creation science” seeks to _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
prove Darwin correct by using Biblical evidence
exploit gaps in the fossil record to dispute evolution
exclude religious instruction from science classes
disprove evolution by pointing to examples of ‘irreducible complexity’
(Answer b; page 32 )
68. Pope John Paul II has stated that evolution is false and only a literal translation of the Genesis story is
acceptable.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 33)
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69. “Intelligent Design” creationists such as Michael Behe use examples of
creation.
a.
b.
c.
d.
to support their views on
flood geology
gaps in the fossil record
evidence for irreducible complexity
Lamarckian ideas
(Answer c; page 33)
70. “Intelligent Design” creationism is unscientific because it does not offer rational explanations.
a. True
b. False
(Answer a; page 33)
Short Essay
71. Describe the famous Scopes Monkey Trial. What are some reasons people have trouble accepting evolution by
natural selection?
72. Explain the mechanics of the scientific method in detail.
73. What does it mean to say that science is self-correcting? Be sure to include the terms data, falsifiable, and
paradigm in your discussion.
74. What does fixity of species mean? Explain the history of this idea from Aristotle to the Renaissance.
75. Explain the artistic, scientific, and social developments in the Renaissance that contributed to our modern
understanding of the world.
76. Explain the influence of the Church on the natural sciences from the Renaissance through the Sir Isaac Newton.
77. Describe the contributions of Linnaeus, de Buffon, and Cuvier. In what ways did their ideas pave the way for
the “Darwinian revolution”?
78. Describe Lamarckianism. What was Lysenkoism?
79. What is uniformitarianism?
80. What was it that Darwin observed while abroad on the Beagle? In what ways did Darwin use what he learned
on the Galapagos Islands?
81. Outline Darwin’s three observations and two deductions.
82. Explain what is meant by “fitness” in terms of natural selection.
83. Describe the preconditions that must be met for natural selection to work.
84. Explain the religious right’s response to Darwin’s ideas. Why does the author not consider “Creation Science”
and “Intelligent Design” scientific?
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