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教育部 97 學年度高級中學以縣(市)為夥伴學習群教師專業成長研習計畫 台南市國立臺南第一高級中學生物學科教師研習實施計畫 ☆解析高中生物課程☆ 之演化和分類學 主講人:姜鈴老師 國立彰化師範大學生物學系 一、指導單位:教育部中等教育司、教育部中部辦公室、生物學科中心。 二、台南市召集學校:國立台南女子高級中學 三、承辦學校:國立臺南第一高級中學 壹、研習時間及地點: 一、研習日期:民國 98 年 5 月 9 日(六) 二、研習時間:上午 8:00~12:30 三、研習地點:國立臺南第一高級中學 時間 課程或活動內容 08:10~08:40 報到 08:40~09:00 開幕典禮 主持人:張逸群校長 09:00~10:30 演講題目: 解析高中生物課程之演化學 演 講 者:國立彰化師範大學生物學系 姜鈴 教授 10:30~10:40 休息時間 10:40~12:10 演講題目: 解析高中生物課程之分類學 演 講 者:國立彰化師範大學生物學系 姜鈴教授 12:10~12:30 綜合座談與閉幕式 主持人:張逸群校長 姜鈴 教授 1 貳、內容 Carl Linnaeus aged 32 Charles Robert Darwin Charles Robert Darwin 英國倫敦 西敏寺 • • • • Born May 13, 1707 • Sweden Died January 10, 1778 aged 70, Sweden • • Born 12 February 1809 • England Died 19 April 1882 aged 73, England 2 必修-自然領域-基礎生物(1)課程綱要 普通高級中學必修科目「基礎生物(1)」課程綱要 中華民國97年1月24日台中(一)字第0970011604B號令發布 2 p9 Scala Naturae and Classification of Species The Greek philosopher Aristotle viewed species as fixed and arranged them on a scala naturae The Old Testament holds that species were individually designed by God and therefore perfect p10 1. Carolus Linnaeus interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence that the Creator had designed each species for a specific purpose 2. Linnaeus was the founder of taxonomy, the level of biology concerned with classifying organisms p11 1. Linnaeus represents the starting point of binomial nomenclature. 2. during the great 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy; 3. the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. p12 The Linnaean system classified nature within a hierarchy three kingdoms Classes Orders Genera (singular: genus) Species (singular: species) His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics p20 Lamarck's Hypothesis of Evolution Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and the inheritance of acquired characteristics The mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by evidence p23 A new era of biology began in 1859 when Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species The Origin of Species focused biologists'attention on the great diversity of organisms HU HU UH 3 U p13 The Voyage of the Beagle p25 During his travels on the Beagle, Darwin collected specimens of South American plants and animals He observed adaptations of plants and animals that inhabited many diverse environments Darwin was influenced by Lyell's Principles of Geology (gift from Captain Robert FitzRoy) and thought that the earth was more than 6000 years old His interest in geographic distribution of species was kindle by a stop at the Galápagos Islands near the equator west of South America P26 陸龜、雀鳥以及鬣蜥 4 p30 Darwin's Focus on Adaptation In reassessing his observations, Darwin perceived adaptation to the environment and the origin of new species as closely related processes From studies made years after Darwin's voyage, biologists have concluded that this is indeed what happened to the Galápagos finches (a) Cactus仙人掌 (b) Insect-eater (c) Seed-eater p31 英國博物學家(1823-1913) HU UH Alfred Russell Wallace p32 In 1844, Darwin wrote an essay 隨筆 on the origin of species and natural selection but did not introduce his theory publicly In June 1858, Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russell Wallace, who had developed a theory of natural selection similar to Darwin's Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species and published it the next year 5 The Origin of Species Darwin developed two main ideas: 1. Descent with modification explains life's unity and diversity 2. Natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution p33 Descent with Modification p34 Darwin never used the word evolution in the first edition of The Origin of Species The phrase descent with modification summarized Darwin's perception of the unity of life The phrase refers to the view that all organisms are related through descent from an ancestor that lived in the remote past p39 In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree with branches representing life's diversity Darwin's theory meshed well with the hierarchy of Linnaeus p37 p36 6 Hyracoidea蹄兔目 (Hyraxes)蹄兔 Sirenia (Manateesa Moeritherium 海牛 and relatives) 始祖象屬 Barytherium Deinotherium恐象 Mammut 猛馬 Platybelodon 劍齒象 Stegodon Mammuthus 猛馬象 Elephas maximus (Asia) Loxodonta 古菱齒象 africana Loxodonta cyclotis 34 24 4 2 10 0 5.5 Millions of years ago Years ago p38 Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and Adaptation p39 Darwin noted that humans have modified other species by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits, a process called artificial selection Darwin then described four observations of nature and from these drew two inferences 7 p41 Observation #1: Members of a population often vary greatly in their traits Observation #2: Traits are inherited from parents to offspring Observation #3: All species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support Observation #4: Owing to lack of food or other resources, many of these offspring do not survive p44 Inference #1: individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations p45 Natural Selection: A Summary Individuals with certain heritable characteristics survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals Natural selection increases the adaptation of organisms to their environment over time If an environment changes over time, natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions and may give rise to new species p48 Note that individuals do not evolve; populations evolve over time Natural selection can only increase or decrease heritable traits in a population Adaptations vary with different environments 8 P50 Natural selection does not create new traits, but edits or selects for traits already present in the population The local environment determines which traits will be z selected for z or selected against in any specific population P51 The Fossil Record z The fossil record provides evidence of 1. the extinction of species, 2. the origin of new groups, 3. and changes within groups over time P52 Homology is similarity P53 resulting from common ancestry P54 肱骨;肱部 Humerus Radius Ulna 橈骨 尺骨 Carpals 腕骨 Metacarpals 掌骨 Phalanges 指骨 Human Whale Cat 9 Bat Homologous structures z are anatomical resemblances z that represent variations z on a structural theme z present in a common ancestor Comparative embryology p56 reveals anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms p57 Vestigial structures z are remnants of features z in the organism's ancestors Examples of homologies z at the molecular level z are genes shared among organisms z inherited from a common ancestor p58 Homologies and “Tree Thinking" z The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary tree of life can explain homologies Evolutionary trees are hypotheses about the relationships among different groups z Evolutionary trees can be made using different types of data, for example,anatomical and DNA sequence data Convergent evolution p60 z Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar, or analogous 同功的,features in distantly related groups z Analogous traits arise when groups independently adapt to similar environments in similar ways z Convergent evolution does not provide information about ancestry Biogeography p62 z Darwin's observations of biogeography, the geographic distribution of species, formed an important part of his theory of evolution z Islands have many endemic 某地特有的 species that are often closely related to species on the nearest mainland or island 10 Branch point (common ancestor) Lungfishes lung Amphibian 1 Tetrapods s Mammal 2 Tetrapod limbs Amnion 羊膜 Amniotes s Lizards 3 and snakes 4 Crocodile Homologous characteristic s 5 Ostriches Bird 6 Feathers Hawks and other birds Tree thinking: information provided in an evolutionary tree p59 •Evolutionary trees can be made using different types of data, by anatomical and DNA sequence data Earth's continents were formerly united p63 in a single large continent called Pangaea 原始大陸 (約在三億年前, 主要的陸塊聚集在一起, 變成一大塊單一的「超級陸塊」, 稱為原始大陸或盤古大陸), but have since separated by continental drift 大陸漂移 An understanding of 1. continent movement and 2. modern distribution of species allows us to predict when and where different groups evolved p64 11 Overview: The Smallest Unit of Evolution p65 One misconception 誤解 is that organisms evolve, in the Darwinian sense, during their lifetimes Natural selection acts on individuals, but only populations evolve Genetic variations in populations contribute to evolution Microevolution is a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations p66 Two processes, z mutation and sexual reproduction, produce the variation in gene pools z that contributes to differences among individuals p67 Variation z Variation in individual genotype leads to variation in individual phenotype z Not all phenotypic variation is heritable z Natural selection can only act on variation with a genetic component p69 Variation Within a Population z Both discrete and quantitative characters contribute to variation within a population z Discrete characters can be classified on an either-or basis z Quantitative characters vary along a continuum within a population p70 Most species exhibit geographic variation, differences between gene pools of separate populations or population subgroups p72 Mutations Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA Mutations cause new genes and alleles to arise Only mutations in cells that produce gametes can be passed to offspring p72 ■The effects of point mutations can vary: 1. Mutations in noncoding regions of DNA are often harmless 2. Mutations in a gene might not affect protein production because of redundancy 冗餘 in the genetic code 12 p74Speciation Speciation,the origin of new species, is at the focal point of evolutionary theory Evolutionary theory must explain how new species originate and how populations evolve Microevolution consists of adaptations that evolve within a population,confined to one gene pool Macroevolution refers to evolutionary change above the species level p75 The biological species concept The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation Species is a Latin word meaning “kind"or“appearance" Biologists compare morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and DNA sequences when grouping organisms p76 The biological species concept states z a species is a group of populations z whose members have the potential z to interbreed in nature and z produce viable, fertile offspring; z they do not breed successfully with other populations Gene flow between populations holds the phenotype of a population together Reproductive isolation p78 Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between different species Reproductive isolation can be classified by whether factors act before or after fertilization Other Definitions of Species p82 The morphological species concept defines a species by structural features zIt applies to sexual and asexual species but relies on subjective criteria 13 The ecological species concept views a species in terms of its ecological niche The phylogenetic species concept: defines a species as the smallest group of individuals on a phylogenetic tree p84 Speciation take place Speciation can occur in two ways: z Allopatric speciation z Sympatric speciation z Allopatric speciation Sympatric speciation Sympatric speciation speciation takes place in geographically overlapping populations (a) Punctuated pattern (b) Gradual pattern p89 14 p90 All animals, and only animals, have Hox genes that regulate the development of body form Although the Hox family of genes has been highly conserved, it can produce a wide diversity of animal morphology p91 p92 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years The common ancestor of living animals may have lived between 675 and 875 million years ago This ancestor may have resembled modern choanoflagellates, protists that are the closest living relatives of animals 15 Individual choanoflagellate OTHER Choanoflagellates EUKARYOTES Animals Collar cell (choanocyte) Sponges Other animals “Porifera” Metazoa Calcarea ANCESTRAL Ctenophor COLONIAL Anus FLAGELLAT Eumetazoa Mouth E Mouth mouth develops from blastopore. Silicea Cnidariaa Acoela Deuterostomia Echinodermata Anus Anus develops Bilateria Chordata from blastopore. Platyhelminthes Rotifera Lophotrochozoa Ectoprocta Brachiopod a Mollusca Annelida A view of animal phylogeny based mainly on molecular data 16 Ecdysozoa Nematoda Arthropoda 17 18 19 P124 Investigating the Tree of Life Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species The discipline of systematics classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships Systematists use fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships p125 20 p127 p128 p129 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data To infer phylogenies, systematists gather information about morphologies, genes, and biochemistry of living organisms 21 p130 p131 Evaluating Molecular Homologies Systematists use computer programs and mathematical tools when analyzing comparable DNA segments from different organisms p133 p134 A shared ancestral character is a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon A shared derived character is an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade A character can be both ancestral and derived, depending on context 22 P137 P138 Maximum parsimony assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events (appearances of shared derived characters) is the most likely The principle of maximum likelihood states that, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time,a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events 23 p141 Maximum parsimony assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events Îthe shortest tree length 24