Download 解析高中生物課程 之演化和分類學

教育部 97 學年度高級中學以縣(市)為夥伴學習群教師專業成長研習計畫
台南市國立臺南第一高級中學生物學科教師研習實施計畫
☆解析高中生物課程☆
之演化和分類學
主講人：姜鈴老師
國立彰化師範大學生物學系
一、指導單位：教育部中等教育司、教育部中部辦公室、生物學科中心。
二、台南市召集學校：國立台南女子高級中學
三、承辦學校：國立臺南第一高級中學
壹、研習時間及地點：
一、研習日期:民國 98 年 5 月 9 日(六)
二、研習時間:上午 8:00~12:30
三、研習地點:國立臺南第一高級中學
時間
課程或活動內容
08:10~08:40
報到
08:40~09:00
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主持人:張逸群校長
09:00~10:30
演講題目: 解析高中生物課程之演化學
演 講 者:國立彰化師範大學生物學系
姜鈴 教授
10:30~10:40
休息時間
10:40~12:10
演講題目: 解析高中生物課程之分類學
演 講 者:國立彰化師範大學生物學系
姜鈴教授
12:10~12:30
綜合座談與閉幕式
主持人:張逸群校長
姜鈴 教授
1
貳、內容
Carl Linnaeus
aged 32
Charles Robert Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin
英國倫敦
西敏寺
•
•
•
•
Born May 13, 1707
• Sweden
Died January 10, 1778
aged 70, Sweden
•
•
Born 12 February 1809
• England
Died 19 April 1882
aged 73, England
2
必修-自然領域-基礎生物(1)課程綱要
普通高級中學必修科目「基礎生物(1)」課程綱要
中華民國97年1月24日台中（一）字第0970011604B號令發布
2
p9
Scala Naturae and Classification of Species
„ The Greek philosopher Aristotle viewed species
as fixed and arranged them on a scala naturae
„ The Old Testament holds that species were individually designed
by God and therefore perfect
p10
1. Carolus Linnaeus interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence
that the Creator had designed each species for a specific purpose
2. Linnaeus was the founder of taxonomy,
the level of biology concerned with classifying organisms
p11
1. Linnaeus represents the starting
point of binomial nomenclature.
2. during the great 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge,
what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy;
3. the system of scientific classification
now widely used in the biological sciences.
p12
The Linnaean system classified nature within a hierarchy
„ three kingdoms
„ Classes
„ Orders
„ Genera (singular: genus)
„ Species (singular: species)
„ His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics
p20
Lamarck＇s Hypothesis of Evolution
„ Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse
of body parts and the inheritance of acquired characteristics
„ The mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by evidence
p23
„ A new era of biology began in 1859
when Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species
„ The Origin of Species
focused biologists＇attention on the great diversity of organisms
HU
HU
UH
3
U
p13
The Voyage of the Beagle
p25
„ During his travels on the Beagle, Darwin collected specimens of
South American plants and animals
„ He observed adaptations of plants and animals that
inhabited many diverse environments
„ Darwin was influenced by Lyell＇s Principles of Geology
(gift from Captain Robert FitzRoy) and thought
that the earth was more than 6000 years old
„ His interest in geographic distribution of species was kindle by
a stop at the Galápagos Islands near the equator west of South
America P26 陸龜、雀鳥以及鬣蜥
„
4
p30
Darwin＇s Focus on Adaptation
„ In reassessing his observations, Darwin perceived
adaptation to the environment and
the origin of new species as closely related processes
„ From studies made years after Darwin＇s voyage, biologists have
concluded that this is indeed what happened to the Galápagos
finches
(a) Cactus仙人掌
(b) Insect-eater
(c) Seed-eater
p31
英國博物學家(1823-1913)
HU
UH
Alfred Russell Wallace
p32
„ In 1844, Darwin wrote an essay 隨筆 on the origin of species and
natural selection but did not introduce his theory publicly
„ In June 1858, Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russell
Wallace, who had developed a theory of natural selection similar
to Darwin＇s
„ Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species and published it the
next year
5
The Origin of Species
„ Darwin developed two main ideas:
1. Descent with modification
explains life＇s unity and
diversity
2. Natural selection is a cause of
adaptive evolution
p33
Descent with Modification p34
„ Darwin never used the word evolution in the first edition of The
Origin of Species
„ The phrase descent with modification summarized Darwin＇s
perception of the unity of life
„ The phrase refers to the view that all organisms are related
through descent from an ancestor that lived in the remote past
p39
„ In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree with
branches representing life＇s diversity
„ Darwin＇s theory meshed well with the hierarchy of Linnaeus
p37
p36
6
Hyracoidea蹄兔目
(Hyraxes)蹄兔
Sirenia
(Manateesa
Moeritherium
海牛
and relatives)
始祖象屬
Barytherium
Deinotherium恐象
Mammut 猛馬
Platybelodon
劍齒象
Stegodon
Mammuthus
猛馬象
Elephas maximus
(Asia)
Loxodonta
古菱齒象
africana
Loxodonta cyclotis
34
24
4
2 10 0
5.5
Millions of years ago
Years ago
p38
Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and Adaptation p39
„ Darwin noted that humans have modified other species
„
by selecting and breeding individuals
„
with desired traits,
a process called artificial selection
„ Darwin then described four observations of nature and from these
drew two inferences
7
p41
„ Observation #1:
Members of a population
often vary greatly in their traits
„ Observation #2:
Traits are inherited from parents to offspring
„ Observation #3:
All species are capable of producing
more offspring than the environment can support
„ Observation #4:
Owing to lack of food or other resources,
many of these offspring do not survive
p44
„ Inference #1:
individuals whose inherited traits
give them a higher probability of
surviving and reproducing
in a given environment
tend to leave more offspring than other individuals
„ Inference #2:
This unequal ability of individuals to
survive and reproduce will lead to the
accumulation of favorable traits
in the population over generations
p45 Natural Selection: A Summary
„ Individuals with certain heritable characteristics
survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals
„ Natural selection increases the adaptation of organisms
to their environment over time
„ If an environment changes over time,
natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions
and may give rise to new species
p48
„ Note that individuals do not evolve; populations evolve over time
„ Natural selection can only increase or decrease
heritable traits in a population
„ Adaptations vary with different environments
8
P50
„ Natural selection does not create new traits,
but edits or selects for traits already present in the population
„ The local environment determines which traits will be
z selected for
z or selected against
in any specific population
P51
„ The Fossil Record
z The fossil record
provides evidence of
1. the extinction of
species,
2. the origin of new
groups,
3. and changes within
groups over time
P52
„ Homology is similarity P53
resulting from common ancestry
P54
肱骨;肱部
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
橈骨
尺骨
Carpals
腕骨
Metacarpals
掌骨
Phalanges
指骨
Human
Whale
Cat
9
Bat
„ Homologous structures
z are anatomical resemblances
z that represent variations
z on a structural theme
z present in a common ancestor
„ Comparative embryology p56
reveals anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms
p57
„ Vestigial structures
z are remnants of features
z in the organism＇s ancestors
„ Examples of homologies
z at the molecular level
z are genes shared among organisms
z inherited from a common ancestor
p58
„ Homologies and “Tree Thinking＂
z The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary tree of life
can explain homologies Evolutionary trees are hypotheses
about the relationships among different groups
z Evolutionary trees can be made using different types of data,
for example,anatomical and DNA sequence data
„ Convergent evolution p60
z Convergent evolution is the evolution of
similar, or analogous 同功的,features in distantly related groups
z Analogous traits arise when groups independently
adapt to similar environments in similar ways
z Convergent evolution
does not provide information about ancestry
„ Biogeography p62
z Darwin＇s observations of biogeography,
the geographic distribution of species,
formed an important part of his theory of evolution
z Islands have many endemic 某地特有的 species
that are often closely related to species
on the nearest mainland or island
10
Branch point
(common ancestor)
Lungfishes
lung
Amphibian
1
Tetrapods
s
Mammal
2
Tetrapod limbs
Amnion
羊膜
Amniotes
s
Lizards
3
and snakes
4
Crocodile
Homologous
characteristic
s
5
Ostriches
Bird
6
Feathers
Hawks and
other birds
Tree thinking: information provided in an evolutionary tree p59
•Evolutionary trees can be made using different types of data, by anatomical and DNA sequence data
„ Earth＇s continents were formerly united p63
in a single large continent called Pangaea 原始大陸
(約在三億年前, 主要的陸塊聚集在一起, 變成一大塊單一的「超級陸塊」, 稱為原始大陸或盤古大陸),
but have since separated by continental drift 大陸漂移
„ An understanding of
1. continent movement and
2. modern distribution of species
allows us to predict when and where different groups evolved
p64
11
Overview: The Smallest Unit of Evolution p65
„ One misconception 誤解
„ is that organisms evolve,
„ in the Darwinian sense, during their lifetimes
„ Natural selection acts on individuals,
but only populations evolve
„ Genetic variations in populations contribute to evolution
„ Microevolution is a change in allele frequencies in a population
over generations
p66 Two processes,
z mutation and sexual reproduction,
produce the variation in gene pools
z that contributes to differences among individuals
p67 Variation
z Variation in individual genotype
leads to variation in individual phenotype
z Not all phenotypic variation is heritable
z Natural selection can only act on variation
with a genetic component
p69 Variation Within a Population
z Both discrete and quantitative characters contribute to
variation within a population
z Discrete characters can be classified on an either-or basis
z Quantitative characters vary
along a continuum within a population
p70 Most species exhibit geographic variation,
differences between gene pools of
„ separate populations
„ or population subgroups
p72 Mutations
„ Mutations are changes
in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
„ Mutations cause new genes and alleles to arise
„ Only mutations in cells
that produce gametes can be passed to offspring
p72 ■The effects of point mutations can vary:
1. Mutations in noncoding regions of DNA are often harmless
2. Mutations in a gene might not affect protein production because
of redundancy 冗餘 in the genetic code
12
p74Speciation
„ Speciation,the origin of new species,
is at the focal point of evolutionary theory
„ Evolutionary theory must explain
how new species originate and
how populations evolve
„ Microevolution consists of adaptations that
evolve within a population,confined to one gene pool
„ Macroevolution refers to evolutionary change
above the species level
p75 The biological species concept
The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation
„ Species is a Latin word meaning “kind＂or“appearance＂
„ Biologists compare
morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and DNA sequences
when grouping organisms
p76
„ The biological species concept states
z a species is a group of populations
z whose members have the potential
z to interbreed in nature and
z produce viable, fertile offspring;
z they do not breed successfully with other populations
„ Gene flow between populations holds the phenotype of a population
together
Reproductive isolation p78
„ Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological factors
(barriers) that impede two species
from producing viable, fertile offspring
„ Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between different species
„ Reproductive isolation can be classified
by whether factors act before or after fertilization
Other Definitions of Species p82
„ The morphological species concept
defines a species by structural features
zIt applies to sexual and asexual species
but relies on subjective criteria
13
„ The ecological species concept
views a species in terms of its ecological niche
„ The phylogenetic species concept:
defines a species as the smallest group of individuals
on a phylogenetic tree
p84 Speciation take place
„ Speciation can occur in two ways:
z Allopatric speciation
z Sympatric speciation
z
Allopatric speciation
„ Sympatric speciation
Sympatric speciation
speciation takes place in geographically overlapping populations
(a) Punctuated pattern
(b) Gradual pattern
p89
14
p90
„ All animals, and only animals,
have Hox genes that
regulate the development of body form
„ Although the Hox family of genes has been highly conserved,
it can produce a wide diversity
of animal morphology
p91
„ p92 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years
„ The common ancestor of living animals may have lived
between 675 and 875 million years ago
„ This ancestor may have resembled modern choanoflagellates,
protists that are the closest living relatives of animals
15
Individual
choanoflagellate
OTHER
Choanoflagellates
EUKARYOTES
Animals
Collar cell
(choanocyte)
Sponges
Other animals
“Porifera”
Metazoa
Calcarea
ANCESTRAL
Ctenophor
COLONIAL
Anus
FLAGELLAT
Eumetazoa
Mouth
E
Mouth
mouth develops
from blastopore.
Silicea
Cnidariaa
Acoela
Deuterostomia
Echinodermata
Anus
Anus develops
Bilateria
Chordata
from blastopore.
Platyhelminthes
Rotifera
Lophotrochozoa
Ectoprocta
Brachiopod
a
Mollusca
Annelida
A view of animal phylogeny based
mainly on molecular data
16
Ecdysozoa
Nematoda
Arthropoda
17
18
19
P124 Investigating the Tree of Life
„ Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group of
related species
„ The discipline of systematics classifies organisms and determines
their evolutionary relationships
„ Systematists use fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer
evolutionary relationships
p125
20
p127
p128
p129 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data
„ To infer phylogenies,
systematists gather information about
morphologies, genes, and biochemistry of living organisms
21
p130
p131 Evaluating Molecular Homologies
„ Systematists use
computer programs and mathematical tools
when analyzing comparable DNA segments from different organisms
p133
p134
„ A shared ancestral character is a character that originated in an
ancestor of the taxon
„ A shared derived character is an evolutionary novelty unique to a
particular clade
„ A character can be both ancestral and derived, depending on context
22
P137
P138
„ Maximum parsimony assumes that the tree that requires
the fewest evolutionary events
(appearances of shared derived characters) is the most likely
„ The principle of maximum likelihood states that, given certain rules
about how DNA changes over time,a tree can be found
that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events
23
p141
„ Maximum parsimony assumes that the tree that requires
the fewest evolutionary events
Îthe shortest tree length
24