* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Chapter 1 Applied psychology The branch of
Misattribution of memory wikipedia , lookup
Behavioral theories of depression wikipedia , lookup
False memory wikipedia , lookup
Asperger syndrome wikipedia , lookup
Drug rehabilitation wikipedia , lookup
Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome wikipedia , lookup
Separation anxiety disorder wikipedia , lookup
Child psychopathology wikipedia , lookup
Antisocial personality disorder wikipedia , lookup
Eating disorders and memory wikipedia , lookup
Generalized anxiety disorder wikipedia , lookup
Glossary of psychiatry wikipedia , lookup
Causes of mental disorders wikipedia , lookup
Dissociative identity disorder wikipedia , lookup
Behavior analysis of child development wikipedia , lookup
Reinforcement wikipedia , lookup
History of mental disorders wikipedia , lookup
Applied Psychology The branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems. Behavior Any observable activity or response by an organism. Behaviorism A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior. Clinical psychology The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders. Cognition Mental processes or thinking. Empiricism The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation. Evolutionary psychology Examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive or survival value for a species over the course of many generations. Functionalism School of psychology asserting that psychology's major purpose was to investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure. Humanism A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth. Introspection Careful, systematic observation of one's own conscious experience. Psychoanalytic theory A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior. Psychology The science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies this knowledge to solving various practical problems. SQ3R A study system designed to promote effective reading by means of five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review. Structuralism School of psychology based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and to investigate how these elements are related. Testwiseness Ability to use the characteristics and formats of a test to maximize one's score. Theory A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations. Unconscious According to Freud, thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior. Anecdotal evidence Support for a particular point of view through the use of personal and vivid (but frequently misleading) stories. Case study An in-depth investigation of an individual subject. Confounding of variables One or more extraneous variables that make it difficult to sort out the effects of the independent variable. Control group The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment. Correlation A link or association between variables. Correlation coefficient The statistic that indicates the degree of relationship between variables. Data collection techniques Procedures for making empirical observations, including questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, and physiological recordings. Dependent variable The variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable in an experiment. Double-blind procedure A research strategy in which neither the subjects nor experimenters know which condition the subjects are in or which treatment they are receiving. Experiment A research method in which independent variables are manipulated. Experimental group In an experiment, the group that receives a treatment involving the manipulation of the independent variable(s). Experimenter bias When a researcher's expectations influence the results of a study. Extraneous variables In an experiment, variables other than the independent variable(s) that seem likely to influence the measure of dependent variables. Hypothesis A tentative statement about the expected relationship between two or more variables. Independent variable In an experiment, a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to observe its impact. Naturalistic observation A research method in which subjects are observed in their natural environment without direct intervention of the researcher. Operational definition Describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable. Participants Term generally used to refer to the people whose behavior is being systematically observed in a study. Placebo effects Change resulting from treatments that are empty, fake, or ineffectual. Population A larger group from which a sample is drawn to which the researcher wishes to generalize. Random assignment In an experiment, distributing subjects so that each has an equal chance of being assigned to a group or condition. Replication A repetition of a study to determine whether the previous results can be duplicated. Research methods Differing ways of conducting research, which include experiments, case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation. Sample A group of subjects taken from a larger population. Sampling bias A sample that is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. Social desirability bias The tendency to provide socially acceptable (rather than truthful) responses on surveys and in interviews. Subjects Term used to refer to participants, whether human or animals, whose behavior is being systematically observed in a study. Survey A questionnaire or interview used to gather information. Variables Any of the factors in an experiment that are controlled or observed by an experimenter or that in some other way affect the outcome. Absolute refractory period The minimum length of time after an action potential, during which another action potential cannot begin. Action potential A brief change in a neuron's electrical charge. Adaptation An inherited characteristic that increased in a population, because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged. Adoption studies Assessing hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their adoptive and biological parents. Afferent nerve fibers Axons that carry information outward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body. Agonist A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter. Antagonist A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) The system of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands. Axon A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons, or to muscles or glands. Central nervous system (CNS) The system that consists of the brain and spinal cord. Cerebral cortex The convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum. Cerebral hemispheres The right and left halves of the cerebrum. Chromosomes Threadlike strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information. Corpus callosum The structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Critical period A limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences. Dendrites Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information. Efferent nerve fibers Axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body. Endocrine system System of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning. Endorphins A family of chemicals produced by the body that resemble opiates in structure and effects. Family studies Assessing hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how they resemble each other on a specific trait. Forebrain The largest region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum. Genes DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission. Hindbrain Part of the brain that includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem the medulla and the pons. Hormones The chemical substances released by the endocrine glands. Hypothalamus A structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs. Limbic system A densely connected network of structures involved in the control of emotion, motivation, and memory. Midbrain The segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Neurons Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. Neurotransmitters Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another. Peripheral nervous system System that includes all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. Pituitary gland The "master gland" of the endocrine system; it releases a great variety of hormones that fan out through the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands. Polygenic traits Characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes. Postsynaptic potential (PSP) A voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane. Resting potential The stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron. Reuptake A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane. Soma The cell body of a neuron; it contains the nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells. Somatic nervous system System of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors. Split-brain surgery A procedure in which the corpus callosum is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures. Synapse A junction where information is transmitted between neurons. Synaptic cleft A microscopic gap between the terminal buttons of the sending neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron. Terminal buttons Small knobs at the end of the axon that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters. Thalamus A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex. Twin studies Assessing hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and/or fraternal twins with respect to a trait. Afterimage A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed. Basilar membrane Membrane running the length of the cochlea that holds the actual auditory receptors, called hair cells. Binocular depth cues Clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes. Bottom-up processing A progression from individual elements to the whole. Cochlea A fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that makes up the largest part of the inner ear and contains the receptors for hearing. Color blindness Deficient ability to distinguish among colors. Complementary colors Pairs of colors that produce gray tones when mixed together. Cones Specialized receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision. Dark adaptation The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination. Depth perception Interpretation of visual cues to determine how near or far away objects are. Farsightedness A condition in which distant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear blurry. Feature analysis Detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form. Feature detectors Neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli. Fovea A tiny spot in the center of the retina where visual acuity is greatest. Gustatory system The sense of taste. Impossible figures Objects that can be represented in two-dimensional figures but cannot exist in three- dimensional space. Lens The transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina. Monocular depth cues Clues about distance that are obtained from the image in one eye. Nearsightedness A condition in which close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry. Olfactory system The sensory system for smell. Perception The selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input. Perceptual constancy A tendency to maintain a perception in the face of constantly changing sensory input. Perceptual set A readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way. Phi phenomenon The illusion of movement created by presenting stationary visual stimuli in rapid succession. Pictorial depth cues Cues about distance in a picture. Pupil The opening in the center of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye. Retina The neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye that absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain. Retinal disparity The differing views of the right and left eyes due to images within 25 feet being projected to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas. Reversible figure A drawing compatible with two different interpretations that can shift back and forth. Rods Specialized receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision. Sensation The stimulation of sense organs. Sensory adaptation A gradual decline in sensitivity after prolonged stimulation. Top-down processing A progression from the whole to the elements. Visual illusions An apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality. Acquisition The initial stage of learning something. Avoidance learning Responding in order to avoid aversive stimulation. Behavior modification A systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of conditioning principles. Classical conditioning The most common name of a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Conditioned reinforcer A reinforcer to which an organism has learned to respond via repeated pairing with an unconditioned reinforcer. Conditioned response (CR) A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. Continuous reinforcement Reinforcing every instance of a designated response. Discriminative stimuli Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a particular response. Elicit To draw out or bring forth, as in drawing out a response in classical conditioning. Emit To produce voluntary responses. Escape learning Engaging in a response that brings aversive stimulation to an end. Extinction The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency. Fixed-interval (FI) schedule Reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses. Higher-order conditioning Learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. Instinctive drift Innate response tendencies that interfere with conditioning. Intermittent reinforcement The name for all schedules of reinforcement in which a designated response is reinforced only some of the time. Learning A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience. Negative reinforcement Removing an aversive stimulus after a response. Observational learning Responding is influenced by observing others. Operant conditioning Learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences. Pavlovian conditioning Another name for classical conditioning (derived from the name Ivan Pavlov, who originally discovered the conditioning phenomenon). Positive reinforcement A rewarding stimulus is provided following a response. Primary reinforcers Stimuli that are inherently rewarding because they satisfy biological needs. Punishment An aversive consequence that weakens or suppresses the tendency to make a particular response. Reinforcement An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response. Reinforcement contingencies The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to presentation of a reinforcer; or, the relationship between a response and positive consequences. Resistance to extinction Continuing to respond after reinforcements have been terminated. Schedule of reinforcement A specific pattern of reinforcement. Secondary reinforcers Stimuli that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers. Shaping Reinforcing successively closer approximations to the desired response. Skinner box A standard operant chamber in which an animal's responses are recorded and shaped through reinforcement. Spontaneous recovery The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus. Stimulus contiguity Presenting stimuli close together in time. Stimulus discrimination An organism learns not to respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. Stimulus generalization Responding to new stimuli that are similar to the stimulus used in conditioning. Trial Presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli in classical conditioning. Unconditioned response (UCR) The response to an unconditioned stimulus. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response. Variable-interval (VI) schedule Reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a variable time interval has elapsed. Variable-ratio (VR) schedule Reinforcement is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses. Availability heuristic Estimating the probably of an event based on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. Conjunction fallacy An error in thinking that involves estimating that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone. Convergent thinking Thinking that narrows multiple alternatives to a single best solution. Creativity Generating ideas that are original, novel, and useful. Decision making Making choices by evaluating alternatives Divergent thinking Expanding alternatives by generating many possible solutions. Functional fixedness The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use. Gambler's fallacy The erroneous belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently. Heritability ratio The proportion of trait variability in a population attributable to genetic inheritance. Heuristic A strategy, guiding principle, or rule of thumb used in solving problems or making decisions. Insight In problem solving, the sudden discovery of a solution following multiple failed attempts. Intelligence quotient (IQ) Mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. Mental age The mental ability typical of a chronological age group. Mental set Persisting in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. Normal distribution A symmetric, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern of many population characteristics. Problem solving Active efforts to discover how to solve a problem. Reaction range Genetically determined limits on intelligence. Reliability The measurement consistency of a test. Representativeness heuristic Basing the estimated probability that an event will occur on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. Trial and error Trying various random solutions until one is found that works. Validity The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. Achievement motive The need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence. Display rules Cultural norms that regulate the expression of emotions. Drive An internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities designed to reduce the tension. Emotion A subjective conscious experience (the cognitive component) accompanied by bodily arousal (the physiological component) and by characteristic overt expression (the behavioral component). Galvanic skin response (GSR) An increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity. Homeostasis A state of physiological equilibrium or stability. Incentive An external goal that motivates behavior. Motivation Goal-directed behavior that may be affected by needs, wants, interests, desires, and incentives. Aggression Any behavior that is intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally. Approach-approach conflict A conflict situation in which a choice must be made between two attractive goals. Approach-avoidance conflict A conflict situation in which a choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects. Avoidance-avoidance conflict A conflict situation in which a choice must be made between two unattractive goals. Biopsychosocial model A model of illness that holds that physical illness is caused by a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. Catastrophic thinking Unrealistic and pessimistic appraisal of stress that exaggerates the magnitude of a problem. Conflict The state resulting from two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses competing for expression. Coping An active effort to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress. Defense mechanisms Largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt. Frustration The feeling that people experience in any situation in which their pursuit of some goal is thwarted. General adaptation syndrome Selye's model of the body's stress response consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Health psychology The subfield of psychology concerned with how psychosocial forces relate to the promotion and maintenance of health and the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness. Immune response The body's defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign substances. Internet addiction Spending an inordinate amount of time on the Internet and being unable to control online use. Learned helplessness A passive behavior produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events. Life changes Any noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment. Optimism A general tendency to expect good outcomes. Pressure Expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way. Social support Various types of aid and succor provided by members of one's social network. Stress Any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten our well-being and thereby tax our coping abilities. Type A personality A behavior pattern marked by competitive, aggressive, impatient, hostile behavior. Type B personality A behavior pattern marked by relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior. Antianxiety drugs Medications that relieve tension, apprehension, and nervousness. Antidepressant drugs Medications that gradually elevate mood and help bring people out of a depression. Antipsychotic drugs Medications used to gradually reduce psychotic symptoms, including hyperactivity, mental confusion, hallucinations, and delusions. Aversion therapy A behavior therapy in which an unpleasant stimulus is paired with a stimulus to extinguish a maladaptive behavior. Behavior therapies Therapies that involve the application of learning principles to change maladaptive behaviors. Biomedical therapies Therapies that use physiological interventions intended to reduce symptoms associated with psychological disorders. Client-centered therapy An insight therapy that emphasizes providing a supportive emotional climate for clients who play a major role in determining the pace and direction of their therapy. Clinical psychologists Psychologists who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and everyday behavioral problems. Cognitive therapy An insight therapy that emphasizes recognizing and changing negative thoughts and maladaptive beliefs. Counseling psychologists Psychologists who specialize in the treatment of everyday adjustment problems. Deinstitutionalization Transferring the treatment of mental illness from inpatient institutions to community-based facilities that emphasize outpatient care. Dream analysis A psychoanalytic technique that involves interpreting the symbolic meaning of dreams. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) A biomedical treatment in which electric shock is used to produce cortical seizure accompanied by convulsions. Free association A psychoanalytic technique in which clients are urged to spontaneously express their thoughts and feelings with as little personal censorship as possible. Group therapy The simultaneous treatment of several clients in a group. Insight therapies Therapies that involve verbal interactions intended to enhance clients' selfknowledge and thus produce healthful changes in personality and behavior. Lithium A chemical used to control mood swings in patients with bipolar mood disorder. Placebo effects Change resulting from treatments that are empty, fake, or ineffectual. Psychiatrists Physicians who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. Psychoanalysis An insight therapy that emphasizes resolving unconscious conflicts, motives, and defenses through techniques such as free association and dream analysis. Resistance A client's largely unconscious defensive maneuvers that hinder the progress of therapy. Social skills training A behavior therapy designed to improve interpersonal skills, especially through shaping, modeling, and behavioral rehearsal. Systematic desensitization A behavior therapy used to reduce clients' anxiety responses through counterconditioning. Tardive dyskinesia A neurological disorder marked by chronic tremors and involuntary spastic movements. Transference In therapy, the phenomenon that occurs when clients start relating to their therapist in ways that mimic critical relationships in their lives. Biological rhythms Periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning. Circadian rhythms The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species. Consciousness Our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Dissociation Splitting of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness. Hallucinogens A diverse group of drugs that distort sensory and perceptual experience. Hypnosis A systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility. Insomnia Chronic problems in getting adequate sleep. Latent content Freud's term for the disguised or hidden meaning of events in a dream. Manifest content Freud's term for the plot of a dream at the surface level. MDMA A compound drug related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline; commonly called "ecstasy." Narcolepsy A disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. Narcotics Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain. Non-REM sleep Sleep stages 1 through 4, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming and varied EEG activity. Opiates Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain. Physical dependence Taking a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms. Psychoactive drugs Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning. Psychological dependence Taking a drug to satisfy mental and emotional craving for the drug. REM sleep A deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, and dreaming. Sedatives Sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioral activity. Sleep apnea A sleep disorder characterized by frequent reflexive gasping for air. Slow-wave sleep Sleep stages 3 and 4 in which low-frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings. Somnambulism Arising and walking about while remaining asleep; sleepwalking. Stimulants Drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioral activity. Tolerance A progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug as a result of continued use. Anterograde amnesia The loss of memory for events that occurs after a head injury. Attention Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Chunk Several bits of information stored in memory as a single unit. Decay theory Posits that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time. Declarative memory system Memory for factual information. Elaboration Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding. Encoding Forming a memory code. Encoding specificity Posits that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code. Episodic memory system Chronological or temporally dated recollections of personal experiences. Explicit memory The intentional recollection of previous experiences. Flashbulb memories Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events. Forgetting curve A graph showing retention and forgetting over time. Hindsight bias The tendency to mold interpretations of the past to fit how events actually turned out. Implicit memory Retention exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering. Interference theory Posits that people forget information because of competition from other material. Levels of processing theory Posits that deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes. Long-term memory (LTM) An unlimited capacity memory store that can hold information for long periods. Method of loci A mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations. Mnemonic devices Verbal strategies for enhancing memory. Overlearning Continuing to rehearse material after it has apparently been mastered. Proactive interference principle Holds that previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information. Procedural memory system Memory for actions, skills, and operations. Recall measure A memory test that requires subjects to reproduce information without any cues. Recognition measure A memory test that requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options (e.g., multiple-choice tests). Rehearsal Repetitively verbalizing or thinking about new information. Relearning measure A memory test that requires subjects to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before. Repression Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious. Retrieval Recovering information from memory stores. Retroactive interference New information impairs the retention of previously learned information. Retrograde amnesia The loss of memory for events that occurred prior to a brain injury. Schema An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or sequence of events. Semantic memory system Memory for general knowledge that is not tied to when the information was learned. Semantic networks Concepts joined by links that show how the concepts are related. Sensory memory The preservation of information in its original sensory form, usually only a fraction of a second. Serial-position effect Having better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle. Short-term memory (STM) A limited capacity memory store that can maintain unrehearsed information for 20 to 30 seconds. Source monitoring Making inferences about where a particular memory originated. Source monitoring error A memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source. Storage Maintaining coded information in memory. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon A temporary inability to remember something accompanied by the feeling that it's just out of reach. Age of viability The age at which the baby can first survive in the event of a premature birth. Animism The belief that all things are living. Attachment A close, emotional bond of affection between an infant and its caregiver. Centration The Piagetian term for the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem and neglect other important features. Cephalocaudal trend The head-to-foot direction of motor development. Cognitive development Development of thinking, reasoning, remembering, and problem solving. Conservation Piaget's term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance. Dementia An abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive defects that include memory impairment. Development The sequence of age-related changes that occurs as a person progresses from conception to death. Developmental norms The average ages at which people display certain behaviors and abilities. Egocentrism Thinking characterized by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint. Embryonic stage The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks after conception until the end of the second month. Fast mapping The process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure to the word. Fetal alcohol syndrome A collection of congenital problems associated with a mother's excessive use of alcohol during pregnancy. Fetal stage The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months after conception through birth. Gender Culturally constructed distinctions between femininity and masculinity. Gender differences Behavioral differences between females and males. Gender roles Expectations concerning the appropriate behavior for each sex. Gender stereotypes Widely held beliefs about females' and males' abilities, personality traits, and social behavior. Germinal stage The first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception. Irreversibility The inability to cognitively visualize reversing an action. Maturation Development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint. Midlife crisis A difficult, turbulent period of doubt and reappraisal of one's life. Motor development Developmental changes in muscular coordination required for physical movement. Object permanence A mental capacity that involves recognizing that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible. Overextension Using a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to. Overregularization In children, incorrect generalization of grammatical rules to irregular cases where they do not apply. Placenta A structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother. Prenatal period The period of pregnancy, extending from conception to birth. Primary sex characteristics The physical structures necessary for reproduction. Proximodistal trend The center-outward direction of motor development. Puberty The period of early adolescence marked by rapid physical growth and the development of sexual (reproductive) maturity. Secondary sex characteristics Physical features associated with gender that are not directly needed for reproduction. Separation anxiety Emotional distress displayed by an infant when separated from a person with whom it has formed an attachment. Sex The biologically based categories of male and female. Stage A developmental period during which certain behaviors and capacities occur. Telegraphic speech Speech that consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted. Underextensions Children's speech errors in which a word is used that represents a narrower set of objects or actions than the word actually means. Zygote A one-celled organism created by the process of fertilization, the union of sperm and egg. Archetypes Emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning. Behaviorism A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior. Collective unconscious A storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from our ancestral past. Compensation Efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one's abilities. Conscious Whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time. Defense mechanisms Largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt. Displacement Diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target. Ego The decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle. Fixation According to Freud, failure to move forward from one psychosexual stage to another as expected. Hierarchy of needs Maslow's systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic, physiological needs must be met before social or growth needs are aroused. Hindsight bias The tendency to mold interpretations of the past to fit how events actually turned out. Humanism A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and potential for personal growth. Id The primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle. Identification Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group. Incongruence The degree of disparity between one's self-concept and one's actual experience. Model A person whose behavior is observed by another. Need for self-actualization The need to fulfill one's potential. Observational learning Responding is influenced by observing others. Oedipal complex According to Freud, children's manifestation of erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent. Personality An individual's unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits. Personality trait A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations. Pleasure principle According to Freud, the principle upon which the id operates, demanding immediate gratification of its urges. Preconscious According to Freud, the level of awareness that contains material just beneath the surface of conscious awareness that can be easily retrieved. Projection Attributing your own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another. Projective tests Psychological tests that ask subjects to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal the subjects' needs, feelings, and personality traits. Psychodynamic theories All the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud that focus on unconscious mental forces. Psychosexual stages According to Freud, developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality. Rationalization Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior. Reaction formation Behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings. Reality principle According to Freud, the principle on which the ego operates, which seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found. Regression Reverting to immature patterns of behavior. Repression The defense mechanism that pushes distressing thoughts and feelings into the unconscious or keeps them from emerging into consciousness. Self-actualizing persons People with exceptionally healthy personalities, marked by continued personal growth. Self-concept A collection of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. Self-efficacy A collection of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. Self-report inventories Personality tests that ask people a series of questions about their characteristic behavior. Striving for superiority A universal drive to adapt, to improve oneself, and to master life's challenges. Superego The moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong. Unconscious According to Freud, thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior. Agoraphobia A fear of going out in public places. Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by fear of gaining weight, disturbed body image, refusal to maintain normal weight, and dangerous measures to lose weight. Anxiety disorders A class of psychological disorders marked by feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety. Availability heuristic Estimating the probably of an event based on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. Bipolar disorder Mood disorder marked by the experience of both depressive and manic periods. Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder that involves binge eating followed by unhealthy compensatory efforts such as vomiting, fasting, abuse of laxatives and diuretics, and excessive exercise. Catatonic schizophrenia Type of schizophrenia marked by striking motor disturbances, ranging from muscular rigidity to random motor activity. Comorbidity The coexistence of two or more disorders in the same individual. Concordance rate Statistic indicating the percentage of twin pairs or other pairs of relatives who exhibit the same disorder. Conjunction fallacy An error in thinking that involves estimating that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone. Conversion disorder A somatoform disorder characterized by a significant loss of physical function (with no apparent organic basis), usually in a single organ system. Culture-bound disorders Abnormal syndromes found only in a few cultural groups. Delusions False beliefs that are maintained even though they clearly are out of touch with reality. Diagnosis Distinguishing one illness from another. Disorganized schizophrenia Type of schizophrenia marked by a particularly severe deterioration of adaptive behavior. Dissociative amnesia A sudden loss of memory for important personal information that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting. Dissociative disorders A class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity. Dissociative fugue A disorder in which people lose their memory for their entire lives along with their sense of personal identity. Dissociative identity disorder A type of dissociative disorder characterized by the coexistence in one person of two or more largely complete, and usually very different, personalities. Also called multiple-personality disorder. Eating disorders Severe disturbances in eating behavior characterized by preoccupation with weight concerns and unhealthy efforts to control weight; includes anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Etiology The apparent causation and developmental history of an illness. Generalized anxiety disorder A psychological disorder marked by a chronic, high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat. Hallucinations Sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of a real, external stimulus or gross distortions of perceptual input. Hypochondriasis A somatoform disorder characterized by excessive preoccupation with health concerns and incessant worrying about developing physical illnesses. Major depressive disorder Mood disorder marked by persistent feelings of sadness and despair and a loss of interest in previous sources of pleasure. Medical model The view that it is useful to think of abnormal behavior as a disease. Mood disorders A class of disorders marked by depressed or elevated mood disturbances that may spill over to disrupt physical, perceptual, social, and thought processes. Multiple-personality disorder Older term for dissociative disorder, still widely used, that describes the coexistence in one person of two or more Negative symptoms Schizophrenic symptoms that involve behavioral deficits, such as flattened emotions, social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention, and poverty of speech. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) A type of anxiety disorder marked by persistent, uncontrollable intrusions of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and urges to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions). Panic disorder A type of anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety that usually occur suddenly and unexpectedly. Paranoid schizophrenia Type of schizophrenia dominated by delusions of persecution, along with delusions of grandeur. Phobic disorder A type of anxiety disorder marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no realistic danger. Positive symptoms Schizophrenic symptoms that involve behavioral excesses or peculiarities, such as hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behavior, and wild flights of ideas. Posttraumatic stress disorder An enduring anxiety disorder that results from experiencing a major traumatic event. Prognosis A forecast about the probable course of an illness. Psychosomatic diseases Physical ailments with a genuine organic basis that are caused in part by psychological factors, especially emotional distress. Representativeness heuristic Basing the estimated probability that an event will occur on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. Schizophrenic disorders A class of psychological disorders marked by disturbances in thought that spill over to affect perceptual, social, and emotional processes. Somatization disorder A type of somatoform disorder marked by a history of diverse physical complaints that appear to be psychological in origin. Somatoform disorders A class of psychological disorders involving physical ailments that have no authentic organic basis and are due to psychological factors. Undifferentiated schizophrenia Type of schizophrenia marked by idiosyncratic mixtures of schizophrenic symptoms. Attitudes Positive or negative evaluations; may include cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components. Attributions Inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others' behavior, and their own behavior. Bystander effect A paradoxical social phenomenon in which people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone. Cognitive dissonance A psychological state that exists when related cognitions are inconsistent. Collectivism Putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one's identity in terms of the group one belongs to. Conformity The tendency for people to yield to real or imagined social pressure. Discrimination Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group. External attribution Attributing the causes of behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints. Fundamental attribution error The tendency of an observer to favor internal attributions in explaining the behavior of others. Group Two or more individuals who interact. Group polarization A phenomenon that occurs when group discussion strengthens a group's dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision in that direction. Groupthink A process in which members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision. Individualism Putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships. In-group The group one belongs to and identifies with. Internal attributions Attributing the causes of behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings. Obedience Complying with direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority. Out-group People who are not a part of the in-group. Person perception The process of forming impressions of others. Prejudice A negative attitude held toward members of a group. Self-serving bias The tendency to attribute our positive outcomes to personal factors and our negative outcomes to situational factors. Social loafing A reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups. Social psychology The branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others. Social schemas Clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people that we use to organize the world around us. Stereotypes Beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group.