Download Learning and Motivation

LearningandMotivation
Motivation
-Motivated:Tobemovedtoaction/behaviourorchangein
action/behaviour
-Motive:Internaldispositiontoapproachoravoidanincentive.
-Eg.Hungerasaninternaldisposition
-Incentive:Environmentalstimulusthatattractsorrepelsus.
-EgFoodwouldbetheincentive
-Choice:Selectamongmotivestosatisfyinternalmotivesorincentivesto
attain
-Instrumentalbehaviour:Behaviourthatresultsinsatisfyingthemotive
orattainingtheincentiveorgoal.
-E.gfindingmenuofthepizzaandorderingit.
Whatdoesmotivationdependon?
-Energy:Availableglucose
-Knowledge:Howtoperformthebehaviour
-Competence:Capableofdoingthebehaviour?
SourcesofMotivation
Referstolocationsfromwherebehaviourismotivated
-Eitherinsideoroutsideperson
-Ifinsidethepersontheyareeither:
-Biologicalvariablesasinbiologicalneeds
-EgHungerisaninsidesource
-Psychologicalvariablesasinpsychologicalneeds
-EgFeelinglonely,theneedtobelong.
-Biologicalandpsychologicalvariablearelinked
-Egbrainisamaterialsubstancewhereasthemindisan
immaterial,psychologicalentity
-Ifusingtheegofhunger,Thehippocampusregisters
hormonesinthebodyandregisterswhensubstance
isneeded.Thismessagethenslowlycomesinto
consciousnessorthemind.
-Ifoutsidethepersoncancomeintheformofincentivesandgoals
Differenttypesofincentives:
-PositiveIncentivesmotivateapproachbehaviour.
-Eggoingtolecturesandstudyinghardcouldhelp
yougetintohonours
-NegativeIncentivesmotivateavoidancebehaviour:
-EgIfyouspeedyouwillgetaspeedingfine,youdo
notwantaspeedingfinesoyoudon’tspeed
OtherSourcesofMotivations
-Theevolutionarypastissharedbyallhumans.Humannature.
-Egfears
-Personalhistorythatbelongstotheindividual.Experiencessince
conception
-Individualdifferences:Peoplesaremotivateddifferentlybecauseof
stableindividualdifference.
-Eg.Differencesinpsychologicalneedsandpersonalitytraits
-Emotions
HowdoInternalandExternalsourcesmotivatebehaviour
-Internalandexternalsourcescombinetomotivatebehaviour
-Apersonispulledtowardfood(external)whenapersonishungry
(internal)
-Persontextsafriend(external)whenneedtobelongisactivated
(internal)
-Studentstudiesforgrades(external)providedthatgradesarevalued
(internal)
LearningandMotivation
Learning:Relativelypermanentchangeinbehaviourorbehaviouralrepertoire
thatoccursasaresultofexperience
-Behaviourexpressionandchangeprovidesaninsightintolearning.
Observing.
Learningasaprocess:Ofacquiringnewbehaviours
Learningasaproduct:Long-termchangesinbehaviour
BehaviouralandCognitiveapproachestolearning
BehaviouralApproach:Emphasisonexternaleventstoexplainobservations
-Watchingexternaleventsandtryingtoexplainit
-Doesn’ttrulytakeintoaccountthecomplexityofhumansandanimals
CognitiveApproach:Dissatisfactionwiththebehaviouralapproach.-Whatis
goingoninsidetheorganism?
Aspectsoflearning
-Learninginferredfromperformance
-Learningdoesnotalwaysequalperformance
-Latentlearning:Potentialforlearning,notobservedunlessmotivatedin
someway
-Memory:Retentionofknowledge
-Humanscanarticulatelearning
EarlytheoriesaboutLearning:
Drivenbyphilosophy
-Allideasdevelopedviaexperience(JohnLocke)vorexperience,innate
(nativism)andreasoning(Descartes)
Typesoflearning:
-Simplelearning-HabituationandSensitisation
-Incontextofreflexes(startleresponse),repetitionandsimplestimulus
-Habituation:Decreaseinstrengthofresponsetorepeated
exposuretoastimulus
-Eg.Ifwhenwalkingoutofashop,thealarmsgooff:
-Mostpeoplewouldstopbeforetheycarryon
walking.Loudnoise=Alert/danger/payattention
-Ifhowever,youcarryonwalking,youhavebecome
habituatedtothatresponse
-Overtime,becausethereisnoharmfulconsequence,the
startleresponsetothealarmgraduallydecreasesin
strength
-Systematicexposure:Graduatedexperiencesthatarefarless
flooding(firstphoto,thenvideo,thenclown)
HabituationProcess
1)Event:Initialemotionalresponse
2)Afterreaction,antagonisticresponse
-eghere:Thestartleresponse:Awouldbe
adrenaline,Bwouldbesomethingtoreduce
thatresponse
Environmental
-Withrepeatedexposuretonoharmfulconsequence
(habituation)theAresponsedecreases
-eg:couldbeusedtoreducephobiassuchasclowns:
coulrophobia
-Emotionalflooding(lockingthemintheroomwithclowns.When
theyrealisethereisnotheyhabituate)
-Doesn’tworkparticularlywell.
-Increasesinternalfeelingstowardsclownsandcanactually
leadtosenstitisation
-Exposuretoanintensestimuliandstrongresponse,get
sentitisation
-SensitisationIncreaseinresponseafterrepeatedexposure
-Eg.Burninghandonoven.Mostkidslearntostayawayquite
quickly
-OperantConditioning
-Classicalconditioning(associativelearning)
-ObservationalLearning
AddictionsandAddictiveBehaviour
Drugs:Chemicalsubstancesthataltermoodandbehaviour
-Somesubstancesaresomotivatingthatallelsefailsincomparisonto
gettingdrugs
-Drugaddictioncharacterisedbycraving,tolerance,andwithdrawal:
Craving:Overpoweringurgefordrug
Tolerance:Personhabituatestoeffectsofdrugs
Withdrawal:Drug-oppositeeffectresultingfromabstinence
SociallyAcceptabledugs
-Caffeine
-Alcohol
-Cigarettes
-Paracetamol(egofoverthecounterdrug)
-Medicalorprescriptiondrugs
1)Druguseimpactsonmood.Itcanincreasepleasure(euphoria)orrelieve
negativefeelings(dysphoria)
2)Voluntarydruguseresultsineitherquitting,usingoccasionallyor
compulsive/habitualinvoluntaryuse(addiction)
3)Addictionisassociatedwithintensecravingstoseekoutanduseparticular
drug
GamblingAddiction
-Aswellasbeingpleasurableactivity,cancauseconsiderablepersonal
andsocialharmwhengamblingbecomesproblematic
-Behaviourofgamblerstakesonsimilarcharacteristicsofdrugaddicted
individuals
InternetAddiction
-Excessiveuse:lesstimeforactivitiesinotherpartsoflife
-Withdrawal:whencomputerinaccessible
-Tolerance:needmoreandmorehours
-Negativerepercussions:socialisolation,fatigueetc
SelfMedicationHypothesis:Usingdrugsinordertoalleviatesymptomsofstress.
-PartofComorbiditywhichcanrefertotheassociationbetween
psychologicaldistressandtheuseofillicitdrugs.
-egoccursinPTSD-morelikelytoselfmedicate
BrainCorrelatesofAddiction
-Neuronsareactivatedincertainareasofthebrain
-Feelingsofpleasureemergeintoconsciousnessasaconsequence
-Drugsonlyhavetheirpleasurableresultoncechemicalaffectreachesthe
brain
-Psychoactivedrugsandgamblingcauseincreaseinactivityofdopamine
system
-Dopamineisthemajorneurotransmitterthere.Fromtheincreased
activityofneuronsinthatarea,feelingsofpleasureandeuphoria
emerge
-Antagonists:drugsthathavetheabilitytoinhibiteffectsof
neurotransmitterslikedopamine
Factorsthatincreaseriskofdrugdependence
-GeneticDisposition:Geneticallyrelatedindividualsaresimilarly
vulnerabletodrugexperimentationandaddiction
-Liability:likelihoodofbecominganalcoholicasresultofones
geneticdisposition
-EnvironmentRisks
-PersonalityDisposition:Levelofpersonalitytraitsassociatedwithdrug
experimentation,useandaddiction
-Eg.Highlyimpulsive,highsensationseekers
-PoorAffectiveForecasting
-EgSmokersunderestimatetherisktoautonomy/powerofcravings
intothefuture
-IncentiveSensitizationTheory:Cravingdependsondrugsincentive
valueanditshedonisticvalue
-IncentiveValue:Whatyouanticipate.Theabilityofthedrugto
createawanting/craving.“Thisisgoingtobegreat…”
-HedonisticValue:Actuallywhatyougetfromit
Overtimeafterrepeateduse,theincentivevalueincreases,andthe
hedonisticvaluedecreases
-Motivationforchange:Stages:Precontemplation,contemplation,
preparation,execution,andmaintenance
Motivationfordruguse:
-Attainingpleasure(positivereinforcement)
-Reducingwithdrawal(negativereinforcement)
AffectiveModelofNegativeReinforcement:
-Addictsbecomesensitivetosymptomsthatpredictwithdrawal
-Asconsequencedruguseoccursinordertopreventanticipated
negativeeffect
Opponent-ProcessTheory:
-Initialpleasurablereactiontodrugisheldincheckbyopponent
processordrug-oppositeeffectcharacterisedbydysphoria
andwithdrawal
-Strengtheningofthisprocessisresponsiblefortoleranceand
withdrawal
CravingsfromEnvironment
Conditionedcompensatoryresponsemodel:Stimuliassociatedwithdrugs
evokeconditionedresponsesthatareoppositeofdrugconditioned
response
-Offsetseffectsofdrugstomaintainhomeostasis
Conditioneddruglikeresponse:Conditioneddrugstimuliarereminders
thatelicitconditionedresponsessimilartothoseevokedbydrug
itself
ClassicalConditioning:
What’shappeningbeforetheresponse,thatisactuallycausingresponse
Conditionedresponse
1) UnconditionedPhase
2) TrainingPhase
3) TestPhase
UnconditionedStimulus(Inthisinstancefood)
NeutralStimulus:(Bell)
Unconditioned/NaturalresponseTheautomaticorunlearned
response(salivation)
Conditionedstimulus:Theoriginallyneutralstimulus(bell)that,
throughpairingwithanunconditionedstimulus(food),comestoelicit
aconditionedresponse
BasicConditioningPhenomena
Acquisition:Initialstageoflearning-acquiringaresponse
ExtinctionIfthepairingstops,theconditionedresponsewilleventually
disappear
Disinhibition:Ifadistractingstimulusispresented,therewillbea
disruptioninfragileinhibitionthatsupposedlydevelopsduring
extinctionandstopextinction.
egringingbuzzerbeforeringingbell
Spontaneousrecovery:Recoveringfromextinction
egputtinganalcoholicinapubanddoingnothing
Reconditioning:Ifconditioningisattemptedafterextinction,ittakes
lesstrialstoproduceconditioning-rapidreaquisition
Conditionedinhibition:Inhibitionthatislearnedthroughclassical
conditioning
StimulusGeneralization:Tendencyforconditionedresponsetoevoke
similarresponsesafterresponseconditioned
-egchildfearswhitestuffedrabbit.Fearsobjectssimilar
Discrimination:Abilitytodifferentiatebetweenconditionedstimulus
andotherstimulusnotparedwithunconditionedstimulus.
-egifbelltoneconditionedstimulus,discriminationwouldinvolvebeing
abletotelldifferencebetweenbelltoneandotherbelltones
EyeblinkConditioning
US-Puffofairagainsteye
UR-Eyeblink-largeandrapideyelidclosure
CS-Lighttone,vibration
CR-Eyeblink-moregradualandslow
CantakealargeamountofCS-USpairingsinorderforCRtobeobserved
-Hashelpedscientistsmapbrainareasandchemicalmechanismsinvolvedin
conditioning,diagnosepsychologicaldisorders,studyeffectsofaging
etc
ConditionedSuppression/ConditionedEmotionalResponse(CER)
-Subjectsareusuallyrats,givenelectricshock
-Conditioningtakesplaceinfarfewertrialsthanineyeblinkconditioning,
perhapsbecauseshockismoreintensethantheeyepuff
-Behaviorsuppressioncanoftenbeobservedinfewerthan10trialsandin
somecases,significantsuppressiontotheCSisfoundafterjustoneCS-
USpairing
SkinConductanceResponse(CSR)/Electrodermalresponse
-Measuresthechange/momentaryfluctuationsintheelectricalconductivity
oftheskin
-Conductivityoftheskinisalteredbyemotionssuchasfear/surprise
-Usedinliedetectortests
-Providesresponsethatcanbequicklyandreliablyconditionedwithhuman
subjects
-Manycomplexstimuli(suchasspokenquestionsetc.)canbeexaminedasCS
TasteAversion
-Psychshavesuggestedthattasteaversionsnotanordinaryegofclassical
conditioningbutviolatessomeofthegeneralprinciplesthatapplyto
mostegofclassicalconditioning
-Oftendevelopsafterjustoneconditioningtrial
-Somethingmanypeoplewillexperienceinlife
-Canbestrongandlonglasting