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Running head: RESEARCH PAPER 1 Research Paper Author’s Name Institution RESEARCH PAPER 2 Compare and Contrast Classical and Instrumental Conditioning Introduction To examine operant or instrumental and classical conditioning, it is important first to understand the subject from which they are derived, which is learning. Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s behavior that is produced by an experience Instrumental, and classical conditioning are examples of the several learning theories that take behaviorist approach. Instrumental conditioning is learning which takes pace as a result or consequence of behavior whereas classical conditioning is the association of an event with another event resulting in a behavior pattern (Miskovic, 2012). This research paper will try to examine the similarities and differences between instrumental and classical conditioning, and after that, it will explain how we use classical and instrumental conditioning in learning the process. Classical conditioning is mostly associated with the Russian Psychologist called Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). The Russian Psychologists was doing research on digestion in dogs and his discoveries led Ivan Pavlov to investigate the tendency of a dog to salivate when responding to a stimulus, which is an involuntary reflex action. He rang a bell, which is conditioned stimulus, every time he offered food to the dog or the dog wax offered food, which is an unconditional stimulus. The dog began associating the ringing of the bell with food gradually, and so each time Ivan Pavlov rang the bell, it responded by salivating whether or not there was food (conditioned response) (Ellis, n.d). Most of our behaviors are shaped by the pairing of stimuli. Certain stimuli, for example, perfume or cologne result in intense emotions. It is not because the smell is the cause of that emotion but because of what one has paired the smell with, for example, husband or boyfriend. WE make such associations every time and do not realize the power that pairing or connection has on us. RESEARCH PAPER 3 Operant or instrumental conditioning is often allied with Skinner B.F. an American psychologist who developed the Thorndike’s law of effect. He showed that through identification of rewards and responses, it is possible to produce behavioral model chains. His experiment consisted of a hungry rat in a box that had a level in it. A food pellet was delivered in the box every time that level was pressed. While that rat inside the box investigated the new environment or surroundings, the rat pressed that level accidentally, and a food pellet was delivered inside the box. The rat started pressing the level more and more frequently and every time it pressed the level, food pellets were delivered. That food acted as reinforcement for that behavior. This is how we learn every day. For example, when we make mistakes, we most likely tend to remember that mistake and then try doing things differently if that same situation comes up again. In this sense, we learn to act in a different way based on natural consequences of our previous actions. This is the same for positive actions. When something one did results to a positive outcome, then one is likely to repeat the same activity or action over and over again. Similarities between Classical and Instrumental Conditioning There are several similarities between classical and instrumental conditioning, for example, the process of extinction, stimulus generalization, spontaneous recovery, higher secondary reinforcement or order condition, and discrimination. Extinction process can occur in both classical and instrumental conditioning, whereby behavior fades away if it is not reinforced. If there is repeated introduction of conditioned stimulus with classical conditioning but with the absence or non-introduction of unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response weakens, and it eventually goes into extinction. If reinforcement is not carried out with instrumental conditioning, then the response that is associated with the condition will go into extinction. Even though the behavior undergoes the process of extinction, research illustrates that the behavior is RESEARCH PAPER 4 not necessarily forgotten completely (Delamater, 2007). This is because responses sometimes appear even after extinction. This is referred to as the spontaneous recovery. For example, in the case of Pavlov’s dog, in the absence of the ringing bell, the dog’s response of salivation will extinct. To evoke this previously learned salivation response, one can ring a bell paired with food. After extinction, relearning can be accomplished at a more rapid rate compared to what was required initially. However, re-extinction occurs if the response is not strengthened again. Stimulus generalization occurs in both instrumental and classical conditioning. Stimulus generalization is elicitation of a response to a stimulus or the tendency for a stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to also elicit a conditioned response.{Hi, how are you? I would really like to work from outside the site, just that we can’t exchange info on there.. Contact me on [email protected] I will be glad to help..} . In classical conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs in all cases of classical conditioning because there is always other stimuli sharing similarities with the conditioned stimulus. For example, in the case of the Russian Psychologist Ivan Pavlov’s experiment, the dog salivating to the ringing of the bell, stimulus generalization can be like if the at dog likewise salivates to a click or a whistle. In instrumental conditioning, the term stimulus generalization refers to the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if the stimulus was the original stimulus (Delamater, 2011). Stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning is the ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and another stimulus that are not paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, since the bell tone is the conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s experiment, stimulus discrimination would be the dog having the ability to differentiate between the tone of the bell and other similar sounds. Stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning is the tendency for a response to occur only in the presence of a particular stimulus. For example, if the rat gets the RESEARCH PAPER 5 food pellet when it only presses the level, the rat will press the level when she only needs the food because the food becomes a signal that tells the rat that its behavior will be reinforced. Differences between Classical and Instrumental Conditioning Both classical and operant or instrumental conditioning involve stimulus and response. However, instrumental conditioning differs from classical conditioning in two ways. Instrumental conditioning’s response is voluntary rather than involuntary like in classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, when a particular stimulus is present (conditioned), the response follows automatically, usually with a little choice on the part of the learner. In instrumental conditioning, the response is normally voluntary. If the learner is willing, he or she can control if or not to make the response. For instance, the rat can choose whether or not to press the level so that a food pellet can be delivered in the box. Nothing forces the rat to do that. Instrumental conditioning voluntary response nature is essential for teachers to keep in kind. For instrumental conditioning to occur, learners should first make a response. Most educational applications of the behaviorist principles involve getting the learners actively and physically engaged in working with the academic subject matter. In instrumental conditioning, learning occurs due to a stimulus which comes after and not before the response. Classical conditioning is as a result of the pairing of two stimuli, one stimulus the UCS that first elicits a response and the other stimulus the CS which starts to elicit a similar or the same response (Escobar, 2004). Thus, the two stimuli lead to certain responses. However, in instrumental conditioning, the learner makes the move first, and then an environmental stimuli, a punishment or a reinforce follows. Normally, there is a contingency that occurs between the response and the outcome or consequence. Mostly, the consequence always follows the response. The consequence seldom occurs if the response has not been made. For RESEARCH PAPER 6 instance, a teacher who praises her or his students only when the students behave well or appropriately makes a reinforcement contingent on the desired or required behavior of the students. In contracts, if a teacher always laughs at a chronically misbehaving student’s antics, provides reinforcement to the response even when there is no occurrence of an acceptable response. Consequently, the behavior of the student is likely not to improve. Conclusion Instrumental conditioning is learning which takes pace as a result or consequence of behavior whereas classical conditioning is the association of an event with another event resulting in a behavior pattern. Both are examples of the several learning theories that take behaviorist approach. There are several similarities between classical and instrumental conditioning, for example, the process of extinction, stimulus generalization, spontaneous recovery, higher secondary reinforcement or order condition, and discrimination. Instrumental conditioning differs from classical conditioning in two ways. Instrumental conditioning’s response is voluntary rather than involuntary like in classical conditioning and in instrumental conditioning, learning occurs due to a stimulus which comes after and not before the response. RESEARCH PAPER References Delamater, R.A., & Oakeshott, S. (2007). Learning about Multiple Attributes of Reward in Pavlovian conditioning. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Delamater, A. (2011). At the Interface of Learning and Cognition: An Association Learning Perspective. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 24, 389-411. Ellis, J., (n.d). Educational Psychology; Developing Learners. Ormrood. Escobar, M., & Miller, R.R. (2004). A Review of the Empirical Laws of Basic Learning in Pavlovian conditioning. International Journal of Comparative Psychology. 17, 279-303. Miskovic, V., & Keil, A. (2012). Acquired Fears Reflected In Cortical Sensory Processing: A Review of Electrophysiological Studies of Human Classical Conditioning. Psychophysiology, 49, 1230-1241. Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 7