Download Basic Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Chapter 6:
Conditioning and Learning
What is Learning?
• Learning
– Relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience
– Excludes temporary changes
– Excludes more permanent changes due to disease,
injury, maturation, injury, or drugs
Types of Learning
• Associative Learning
• Occurs when a person or animal forms a simple
association between stimuli and response
• Reinforcement
– Any event that increases the probability that a
response will recur
• Response:
– Any identifiable behavior
– Internal: Faster heartbeat
– Observable: Eating, scratching
Types of Learning
• Associative Learning
• Antecedents
– Events that precede a response
• Consequences
– Effects that follow a response
Types of Learning
• Associative Learning
• Two types
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov
– Russian physiologist who initially was studying
digestion
– Used dogs to study salivation
– Saw dogs salivate before food placed in their
mouth
– Saw dogs salivate when he entered room
Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Experiment
– Neutral Stimulus
• Stimulus that does not evoke a response
– Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
• A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response
– Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
• Stimulus that evokes a response because it has been
repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Experiment (cont’d)
– Reflex
• Automatic, nonlearned innate response to a stimulus
e.g., an eyeblink
– Unconditioned Response (UCR)
• An innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
– Conditioned Response (CR)
• A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition
– Training period in conditioning when a response is
reinforced
– Respondent reinforcement occurs when the US
elicits a response, which becomes associated with
the CS
Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Higher Order Conditioning:
– A conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further
learning
– A CS is used as if it were a UCS
Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Expectancies
– Expectation about how events are interconnected
– The brain learns to expect that the US will follow
the CS
• Brain prepared body to respond
Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Extinction
– Weakening of a conditioned response through
removal of reinforcement
– May take several extinction sessions to reverse
conditioning
• Spontaneous Recovery
– Reappearance of a learned response following
apparent extinction
Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus Generalization:
– A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar,
but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus
Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus Discrimination
– The learned ability to respond differently to
similar stimuli
Classical Conditioning in Humans
• Conditioned Emotional Responses
– Learned Fears
• Phobia
– Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a specific situation or
object
• Conditioned Emotional Response
– Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus
– Amygdala becomes more active; produces feelings of fear
Classical Conditioning in Humans
• Conditioned Emotional Responses
– Desensitization
• Therapy for Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs)
• Exposes phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while
they stay calm and relaxed
Vicarious or Secondhand Conditioning
• Vicarious Classical Conditioning
– Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by
observing another’s emotional reactions
– Explains how we develop attitudes to foods,
politics, ethnic groups, etc.
Operant Conditioning
• Learning based on the consequences of
responding
• Law of Effect (Thorndike)
– The probability of a response is altered by the
effect it has
• Responses that lead to desired effects are repeated
• Those that lead to undesired effects are not
• Operant Reinforcer
– Any event that follows a response and increases
its likelihood of recurring
Operant Conditioning
• Acquiring an
operant
response
– Studies with
animals use
special
apparatus
– Conditioning
Chamber
(Skinner Box)
Operant Conditioning
• Response-Contingent Reinforcement:
– Reinforcement given only when a particular
response occurs
– We learn to expect that a certain response will
have a certain effect at certain times
Operant Conditioning:
Timing of Reinforcement
• Operant reinforcement most effective when it
immediately follows a correct response
– Ideally, less than 50 seconds
Operant Conditioning:
Timing of Reinforcement
• Response Chain
– A linked series of actions that leads to
reinforcement
– Example: dog agility training
• Superstitious Behavior
– Behavior that is repeated because it appeared to
produce reinforcement
– However, behavior is unnecessary
Operant Conditioning: Shaping
• Shaping
– Molding responses gradually to a final desired
pattern
– Successive Approximations
• Ever-closer matches
Operant Conditioning:
Operant Extinction
• Operant Extinction
– When learned responses that are not reinforced
gradually fade away
• Spontaneous Recovery
– Brief return of an operant response after
extinction
– May be adaptive
Operant Conditioning
• Positive Reinforcement:
– When a response is followed by a reward or other
positive event
– Increases the likelihood a response will reoccur
• Negative Reinforcement:
– When a response is followed by the removal of an
unpleasant event or by an end to discomfort
– Increases the likelihood a response will reoccur
Operant Conditioning
• Punishment:
– When a response is followed by an aversive
stimulus
– Decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a
spanking)
– Can also take the form of a response cost
• Removal of a reinforcer or positive state of affairs
• Example: Time out
Types of Operant Reinforcers
• Primary Reinforcer:
– Nonlearned and natural
– satisfies biological needs
– EXAMPLE: food, water, sex
– Intracranial Self-Stimulation (ICSS)
• Natural primary reinforcer
• involves direct electrical activation of brain’s “pleasure
centers”
Types of Operant Reinforcers
• Secondary Reinforcer
– Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval)
– Often one that gains reinforcing properties by
association with a primary reinforcer
Secondary Reinforcers
• Token Reinforcer
– Tangible secondary reinforcer (e.g., money, gold
stars, poker chips)
– Can be exchanged for primary reinforcers
– Don’t lose reinforcing value as quickly as primary
reinforcers
• Token economies
– Manage and alter behavior through reinforcement
of selected responses
Secondary Reinforcers
• Social Reinforcer
– Learned desires for attention and approval
Types of Operant Reinforcers
• Feedback and Knowledge of Results
– Provide information about the effect of a response
– Important for human learning
– Most effective when frequent, immediate, and
detailed
Feedback
• Programmed Instruction
– Information is presented
• in small amounts
• gives immediate practice,
• provides continuous feedback
Feedback
• Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI):
– Learning is aided by computer-presented
information and exercises
• Educational simulations allow exploration of imaginary
situations
Partial Reinforcement
• Situation or pattern where reinforcers do not
follow every response; only a portion are
reinforced
• Partial Reinforcement Effect
– Responses acquired by partial reinforcement are
very resistant to extinction
• May follow a Schedule of Reinforcement
– Plans for determining which responses will be
reinforced
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
• Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
– A set number of correct responses must be made
to obtain a reinforcer
• Produce high response rates
• Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
– A varied (average) number of correct responses
must be made to get a reinforcer
• Produce high response rates
• Produces greater resistance to extinction than fixed
ratio schedule
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
• Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
– The first correct response made after a certain
amount of time has elapsed is reinforced
• Produces moderate response rates
• Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
– Reinforcement is given for the first correct
response made after a varied (average) amount of
time
• Slow, steady response rates
• Extremely resistant to extinction
Stimulus Control
• Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded
response tend to influence when and where
the response will occur
Stimulus Control
• Operant Stimulus Generalization
– Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those
that preceded operant reinforcement
• Operant Stimulus Discrimination
– Occurs when one learns to differentiate between
the antecedent stimuli that signal either an
upcoming reward or a nonreward condition
Punishment
• Punisher
– Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a
target behavior
– Two types:
• Onset of unpleasant event
• Response cost
Variables Affecting Punishment
• Affected by
– Timing
– Consistency
– Intensity
Variables Affecting Punishment
• Intensity
– Severe Punishment
• Intense punishment
• Capable of suppressing a response for a long period
(perhaps permanently)
– Mild Punishment
• Weak punishment
• Usually slows responses temporarily
The Downside of Punishment
• It’s aversive (painful or unpleasant)
• Anything associated with punishment tends to be
feared, resented, or disliked
• Encourages
– Escape Learning
– Avoidance Learning
• May also increase aggression
• Physically punished children are more likely to
engage in aggressive, impulsive, antisocial
behavior
• Doesn’t teach “right” behaviors
Using Punishment Wisely
1. Avoid harsh punishment
2. Use minimum punishment necessary to
suppress misbehavior
3. Apply punishment during or immediately after
misbehavior
4. Be consistent
5. Use counter-conditioning
6. Expect anger from punished person
7. Punish with kindness and respect
Cognitive Learning
• Higher-level learning involving thinking,
knowing, understanding, and anticipation
Cognitive Maps
• Internal
representation of
an area, like a city
or a maze;
• Underlies ability to
choose alternate
paths to the same
goal
Latent Learning
• Occurs without obvious reinforcement
• Not demonstrated until reinforcement is
provided
• Related to higher abilities, such as anticipation
Latent Learning
• Rote Learning
– Takes place mechanically, through repetition and
memorization, or by learning rules
• Discovery Learning
– Learning based on insight and understanding
– People discover facts and principles
– Guided discovery
• Freedom to explore with guidance
Modeling
• Also called observational learning (Albert
Bandura)
• Occurs two ways:
– by watching and imitating actions of another
person
– by noting consequences of a person’s actions
• Occurs before direct practice is allowed
• Allows skipping of trial-and-error learning
Modeling
• Model
– Someone who serves as an example in
observational learning
• Steps to Successful Modeling
– Pay attention to model
– Remember what was done
– Be able to reproduce modeled behavior
– If a model is successful or his/her behavior is
rewarded, behavior more likely to be imitated
Imitating Models
• Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments
– An adult hit the doll with a hammer, sat on it,
punched it, and kick it
– 3 groups
• children watched adult perform behaviors
• children watched a movie of an adult perform
behaviors
• children watched a cartoon version of an adult perform
behaviors
Imitating Models
• Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments
(cont’d)
– Children were put into room and frustrated
– Children’s behaviors toward Bo-Bo doll imitated
adults’
• Message: Children will do as you do, not do as
you say.
Modeling and the Media
• All media provides opportunities for imitation
– Pro wrestling, rap music, video games
• Typical TV viewers are exposed to a massive
dose of media violence
– Tends to promote observational learning of
aggression
– Links between aggressive TV and aggressive
behavior
Modeling and the Media
• Media violence does not “cause” aggression,
but makes it more likely, especially if children
•
•
•
•
Believe aggression is acceptable problem-solving
Believe TV violence is realistic
Identify with TV characters
Don’t realize that TV stories and characters are
fantasies
• Video games may desensitize players to
violence and allow them to practice violence
against other people.
Psychology in Action:
Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project
• Self-Managed Behavioral Principles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Choose a target behavior
Record a baseline
Establish goals
Choose reinforcers
Record your progress
Reward successes
Adjust your plan as you learn more about your
behavior
Psychology in Action:
Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project
• Self-Managed Behavioral Principles (cont’d)
– Premack Principle
• Any high frequency response can be used to reinforce a
low frequency response
– Self-Recording
• Self-management based on keeping records of
response frequencies
• We act differently when we know we are being
observed
Psychology in Action:
Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project
• Breaking Bad Habits
– Alternate Responses
• Try to get the same reinforcement with a new
response.
– Extinction
• Try to discover what is reinforcing an unwanted
response and remove, avoid, or delay the
reinforcement.
Psychology in Action:
Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project
• Breaking Bad Habits
– Response Chains
• Scramble the chain of events that leads to an undesired
response.
– Cues and Antecedents
• Try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit
the bad habit
Psychology in Action:
Behavioral Self-Management – A Rewarding Project
• Breaking Bad Habits
– Behavioral Contracting
• State a specific problem behavior you wish to control or
a goal you wish to achieve
• State the rewards you will get, privileges you will
forfeit, or punishments you must accept
• Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to
sign it