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Chapter 5 Learning What is Learning? A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience Learning Three is adaptive major types of learning: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive learning Module 5.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association Module 5.1 Preview Questions What is learning? What is classical conditioning? What roles do extinction and spontaneous recovery play in classical conditioning? What roles do stimulus generalization and discrimination play in classical conditioning? What stimulus characteristics strengthen conditioned responses? Module 5.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d) What is a cognitive perspective on classical conditioning? What are some examples of classical conditioning in humans? Classical Conditioning Discovered by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) Learning by association Learned through experiences Classical Conditioning A form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a CR Spontaneous Recovery: the spontaneous return of a CR following extinction Reconditioning: the process of relearning a CR after extinction Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus Generalization: tendency of stimuli similar to the CS to elicit the CR One explanation for feelings of déjà-vu Stimulus Discrimination: the ability to differentiate among related stimuli Stimulus Characteristics that Strengthen Conditioned Responses of pairings – the more the CS is paired with the US Frequency – when the CS is first and remains present with the US Timing Intensity of US – a stronger US Why it Matters: Examples of Classical Conditioning Conditioned emotional reactions (CER) Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment Phobias Positive emotions Drug cravings Conditioned taste aversions Immune system changes Continue Module 5.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences Module 5.2 Preview Questions What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect? What is operant conditioning? What are the different types of reinforcers? What are schedules of reinforcement and how are they related to learning? Module 5.2 Preview Questions (Cont’d) What is escape learning and avoidance learning? What is punishment, and why are psychologists concerned about its use? What are some applications of operant conditioning? Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning: learning results from the association between stimuli before a response occurs Operant Conditioning: learning results from the association of a response with its consequences Operant Conditioning A form of behavioral learning in which the patterns of rewards, punishments, & other consequences encourage or discourage the behaviors they follow Nonreflexive act- any behavior or event that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli Subject more likely to repeat rewarded behaviors and not repeat punished behaviors Thorndike and the Law of Effect The tendency of a response to occur depends on the effects it has on the environment Responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened and more likely to occur again Reinforcement Responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and less likely to occur again Punishment B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning Skinner believed in radical behaviorism Behavior is completely determined by environment and genetics Free will is an illusion or a myth Organisms learn responses that operate on the environment to produce consequences “Operant conditioning” or “instrumental learning” Discriminative Stimuli & Shaping Discriminative Stimulus: a cue that signals reinforcement is available if a particular response is made Shaping: application of the method of successive approximations Reinforce responses that are closer and closer to correct response Extinction Process by which responses are weakened and eventually eliminated Occurs when the response is repeatedly performed but is no longer reinforced Schedules of Reinforcement When is reinforcement delivered? Continuous Reinforcement: every response is reinforced Partial Reinforcement: only a portion of the responses is reinforced Ratio schedules: fixed or variable (number) Interval schedules: fixed or variable (timing) Escape and Avoidance Learning Escape Learning: escape an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response Avoidance Learning: avoid an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response Punishment Consequence that weakens or suppresses a response Removal of a reinforcing stimulus Introduction of an aversive stimulus Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Punishment Introduces an aversive stimulus Weakens a behavior Negative reinforcement Removes an aversive stimulus Strengthens a behavior Drawbacks of Punishment May suppress undesirable behavior, but does not eliminate it Does not teach new behaviors Can have undesirable consequences May become abusive May represent a form of inappropriate modeling Why it Matters: Applications of Operant Conditioning Biofeedback Behavior training modification Token economy program Programmed instruction Computer-assisted instruction Module 5.3 Cognitive Learning Module 5.3 Preview Questions What is cognitive learning? What is insight learning? What is latent learning? What is observational learning? Cognitive Learning Involves mental processes that cannot be directly observed (thinking, information processing, problem solving, and mental imaging) Premise is that we are capable of new behaviors without actually having had the chance to perform them or being reinforced for them Insight Learning Köhler’s (1927) experiment with Sultan the chimp Wolfgang Insight Learning: process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs The “Aha!” phenomenon Requires restructuring or reorganizing the problem in one’s mind to form a solution Latent Learning “Hidden” learning occurs without reinforcement Learned behavior displayed only when reinforced Tolman: The rats had developed a cognitive map of the maze. Mental representation of maze Observational Learning Acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors observed in others Also called vicarious learning or modeling Allows us to become capable of behaviors even before have chance to do the behaviors ourselves Observational Learning (Cont’d) Albert Bandura: Children learn to imitate aggressive behavior “Bobo doll” studies Influence of modeling generally stronger when: Model is similar to the learner Positive reinforcement for performing the behavior is evident Application: Module 5.4 Putting Reinforcement into Practice Modifying Behavior Important to establish a clear contingency or connection between the desired behavior and the reinforcement Contingency contracting involves an exchange of desirable reinforcers Applying Reinforcement Be specific. Use specific language. Select a reinforcer. Explain the contingency. Apply the reinforcer. Track frequency of the desired behavior. Wean the child from the reinforcer. Giving Praise Connect and make eye contact with the child and smile while giving praise. Use hugs. Be specific. Avoid empty flattery. Reward the effort, not the outcome. Avoid repeating yourself. Don’t end on a sour note. Thank you Have a nice day!