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Transcript
Quote “We lived in a neighborhood that was I guess, about a mile and a half from a black neighborhood. So I can remember early on, during my youth, we had a black park…I used to enjoy [going] there, and the idea was that it was somehow dangerous now to go there. We had a swimming lake there and I was ten or eleven, and blacks were allowed then to go to that park. It was just overnight that, “Well son, you’re not allowed to go there now.” Basically we had to go twenty miles out to a different lake to go swimming. They just said, “You don’t want to go there because it’s dangerous. Black people are there. You never can tell what they might do to you.” -Anonymous white research participant quoted by Joe Faegin and Hernan Vera (1995, p. 158) Origins Questions 1. Will prejudice naturally develop, or is prejudice something that is taught? *Toward person of another race? *Other gender? *Other ages? 2. Provide a list of factors that could influence a child to be prejudice 3. Is prejudice in children fundamentally different experience/concept than prejudice in adults? 4. Is a 3 year old the same as a 7 year old? 5. Is a 5 year old the same as a 2 year old 6. Is a 4 year old the same as an 11 year old? Take Home Message • As children develop they change, and these changes influence how and why they can develop prejudice attitudes Origins Awareness of Social Categories A Quick Note on Categories Take Home Message • The mind creates a category to represent an person, object, or idea • Categorization makes processing information (thinking) more efficient • The categories can represent something physical like: tree; Or categories can represent social groups: conservatives, athletes, etc. • Categorization, by social group, is also the origin of prejudice • Categories make thinking more efficient * Example: restaurant Question Once a child is capable of categorizing by social grouping, some children go on to develop prejudice toward out-groups, others do not? What is the difference and why? Origins Awareness of Social Categories Big Picture • Two types of category awareness 1. Implicit: category is not consciously known 2. Explicit: category is thought of in a conscious manner Infant Implicit Categorization • Infants can recognize categories even before they can verbalize them • Infants spend longer amounts of time looking a pictures of distinct categories • Ability to do so suggests that it’s an innate propensity to organize the social world by categories Origins Awareness of Social Categories Three Month Olds, but not Newborns Prefer Own-Race Faces Kelly, J.J., Quinn, P.C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., et al. (2005) Findings • Awareness of racial groups (at least awareness of skin color and physical features) may develop at an early age • In their study, newborn White children (ages 16 to 120 hrs) showed no preference for looking at pictures of adults from various racial groups. However, White 3month-old children preferred White adult faces over those of Black, Middle-Eastern, and Asian adults Origins Awareness of Social Categories Emergence of Explicit Awareness Take Home Message • p. 282 quote • By 3-years-old children are capable of correctly apply gender as a social category Big Picture • Categorization changes as children develop Gender Identification • Thompson (1975): young children were shown photos of people and ask: is this a male or female? • 75% of 2-yr-olds could correctly identify males and females • 90% of the 3-yr-olds could correctly identify males and females Origins Awareness of Social Categories Racial Identification Research Question: When do children develop a sense of racial identity? Doll Studies • Two dolls are presented (one white one black, etc.) and the child is asked: which looks like a black (or white) child)? • 3 year olds 25% accurate 4-5 year olds 75% accurate (Clark, 1947) • 5 – 9 make distinctions between Native American’s, Chinese, and Latinos • p. 283 Box 8.2 Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s Doll Studies Origins Awareness of Social Categories Learning to be Prejudice: Growing up in Multi-Ethnic Britian Davey, 1983 “Other researchers have used more open-ended tasks to examine children’s early awareness of gender and racial categories. In one such task, children are given a set of photographs and are asked to group the ones that “look alike” or “belong together.” Sometimes children are allowed to use only a preset number of categories; other times they are free to create as many categories as they would like. The photographs usually vary on several dimensions such as age, sex, and ethnicity. In one study that used this procedure, 7-to 10-year-old White children primarily used the dimension of ethnicity to sort the photos and seldom used gender. Origins Awareness of Social Categories “Learning to be Prejudice: Growing up in Multi-Ethnic Britain Davey, 1983 However, when given more specific instructions, such as to match two pairs of photographs to play together, the results were different. Children used gender as the category of choice; for example, children were more likely to match a Black boy and a White boy together than a boy and a girl of the same race. Thus, the context in which children sorted the photographs influenced the way in which children categorized them. When children were asked to simply sort the photos, they focused on ethnicity; however, when they task was extended to the broader cultural context (in this case, playmate choice), then they did not focus on race. Such results suggest intergroup attitudes and intergroup behaviors may develop along multiple pathways. Origins Awareness of Social Categories Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s Doll Studies • p. 283, Box 8.2 • Video Awareness of Social Categorization And the Development of Prejudice Big Picture White Children’s Attitudes • A child may have an awareness of social categories, but may not be prejudice • White children begin to develop racial attitudes, both pos. and neg., between ages 3-4 • A child may become prejudice by making a value-judgment (good/bad) toward a social group • In-group favoritism is strongest at 5-7 Research Question: What are children’s attitudes towards different racial groups • At age 5, out-group prejudice also emerged, but was less strong (Aboud, 2003) Awareness of Social Categorization And the Development of Prejudice A Cognitive Development Approach to Racial Stereotyping and Reconstructive Memory in Euro-American Children Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L.S. (2006) Purpose • To assess different age groups of White children’s racial stereotyping of Blacks and their own race Age Groups • 4-5 yr-olds and 8-9 yr-olds Awareness of Social Categorization And the Development of Prejudice A Cognitive Development Approach to Racial Stereotyping and Reconstructive Memory in Euro-American Children Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L.S. (2006) Methods • Assigning positive and negative traits (such as, clean, smart, ugly, and sick ) to “only Black people,” to “only White people,” or to “both Black and White people.” Stereotypical Response: assigning positive traits to “only white people” Counterstereotypical Responses: assigning positive traits to “only Black people” and negative traits to “only White people” Non-Stereotypeical Responses: Positive and negative traits assigned to “both White and Black people” Awareness of Social Categorization And the Development of Prejudice A Cognitive Development Approach to Racial Stereotyping and Reconstructive Memory in Euro-American Children Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L.S. (2006) Results • 4- and 5-year-olds gave the largest number of stereotypical responses and the fewest counterstereotypical responses and non-stereotypical responses • The older children, 8- and 9-year-olds had the lowest degrees of racial stereotyping Conclusions • Racial stereotyping and prejudice declined between 4 and 9 years of age Awareness of Social Categorization And the Development of Prejudice Black Children’s Attitudes Take Home Message • Black children also begin to develop racial attitudes around ages 3-4 • Between ages 4-7, Black children (compared to White children) show more variability in their racial preference patterns • Between ages 5-7 there are a mix of attitudes, some pro-Black, some pro-White, some un-biased • Between 7 and 10 pro-White bias disappears, and Black children typically either express more proBlack attitudes or no bias • Between ages 6-10 racial minorities develop more complex attitudes towards race, prejudice, and discrimination (p. 290 graph) Other Groups • Mexican American, Asian American and Native America children show attitudinal patterns similar to those displayed by Black children Awareness of Social Categorization And the Development of Prejudice Conclusions Later Grades • Children appear to develop racial preferences and attitudes between 3 and 5 yrs • It seems that racial segregation, in terms of best friend choice, is at its peak in 6th to 8th grades, with few students naming peers of another race in these three grades Intergroup Behavior Notes Jarrett & Quay (1984): Roster analysis: Who is your best friend? • Kindergarten: no race-preference • 1st Grade: Slight race preference developed Gender Development of Gender Prejudice Origins • Children as young as 2 can readily associate which toy is appropriate for their sex • Same-sex preferences emerge at 3-4 Changes in Older Children Martin (1989) Examined how much children would like gender typical/atypical children and the associated labels • Two groups *4.5-yr-olds *8.5-yr-olds Results: 4.5-yr-olds disliked the label tomboy the most, where as 8.5-yr-olds disliked the label sissy the most Theories of Prejudice Development Big Picture Types of Theories Cognitive Development Theories Social Learning • Examines how a child’s cognitive abilities influence their prejudiced attitudes • Children learn to be prejudice from the environment Inner State Theories • Prejudice attitudes develop because of something within the person (personality traits) • Prejudice develops in ways that roughly parallel the stages of cognitive development Theories of Prejudice Development Background Piaget’s Cognitive Development 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2) • Proposed a theory that children develop through cognitive stages • Children explore their world using their senses • In each stage, children have different limitations on their cognitive abilities • Move from simple motor tasks to more complex Stages Object Permanence: Knowledge that 1. Sensorimotor an object exists, even when it is not in sight * important for the development of symbolic thought (use symbols to represent meaning…i.e., words) 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete Operations 4. Formal Operations Theories of Prejudice Development Background 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7) 3. Concrete Operations (7-12) • Symbolic thinking continues to develop – a wooden block can represent a “train” • Centration no longer occurs • Limit in ability to think logically – Santa is real Centration: Tendency to focus on only one feature of an object, while ignoring other relevant features * Liquid/glass experiment * Penny experiment Egocentrism: inability to see the world through another’s eyes • Logical thought develops (question Santa) • Difficulty dealing with abstract concepts, such as “freedom” 4. Formal Operations (12-adult) • Abstract thinking becomes possible • Hypothetical, critical thinking develop * Ability to view things from several perspectives Theories of Prejudice Development Aboud’s Theory Big Picture • 3 stages with no set age boundaries – dif. children progress at dif. rates 1st Stage • Children prejudice is based on an emotional response to others and a focus on the self Infant Stranger Distress: infants become distressed by anyone who does not look like their caregiver • Around age 5 children assume that everyone else sees the world as they do • Thus, prejudice is not hostile, but usually comes in the form of expressed avoidance or negative evaluations Theories of Prejudice Development Aboud’s Theory 2nd Stage 3rd Stage • Perceptions of other people develop relative to oneself • Conceptual understanding develops • Children begin to distinguish physical similarities and dissimilarities • Because of limited cog. ability, children then overemphasize obvious perceptual differences to belie inner traits and personality characteristics • In the process of categorizing, children are more capable of looking at inner qualities • Children categorize both by social group and by individual qualities • Children are capable of understanding individual differences IDEAS The Development of Prejudice •Preference Methodology •Prejudice Forced Choice •Discrimination Choose the one that you like – problematic because it doesn’t necessarily indicate prejudice, children could have positive attitudes towards both pictures Continuous Measures – similar to likert scales Sociometric Measures Best friends, observations of who children play with