Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Chapter 5: Learning Learning: Definition A relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience – Distinguishes between changes due to maturation and changes brought about by experience – Distinguishes between short-term changes in performance and actual learning Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Classical Conditioning Type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Classical Conditioning A stimulus that, before conditioning,does not naturally bring about the response of interest A stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Classical Conditioning A natural, innate response that is not associated with previous learning Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Classical Conditioning A NS that has been paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused only by the UCS A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Before Conditioning Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. During Conditioning Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. After Conditioning Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Classical Conditioning Extinction – Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears Spontaneous recovery – The re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization Conditioned Stimulus – Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus New Stimulus Stimulus discrimination – Ability to differentiate between stimuli Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning – Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences Law of effect – Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and responses followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement – The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behaviour will be repeated Reinforcer – Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behaviour will occur again Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Operant Conditioning Primary reinforcer – Satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person’s prior experience Secondary reinforcer – A stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcement Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment Positive Reinforcement – A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response Negative reinforcement – Unpleasant stimulus whose removal from the environment leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future – Escape conditioning – Avoidance conditioning Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Punishment Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behaviour will occur again – Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus – Negative punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Behaviour that is reinforced every time it occurs Partial reinforcement – Behaviour that is reinforced some but not all of the time Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedule – Reinforcement is given only after a certain number of responses Variable-ratio schedule – Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-interval schedule – Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low Variable-interval schedule – Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Operant Conditioning Stimulus Control Training – Behaviour is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence Discriminative stimulus – Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow the response Stimulus generalization Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Operant Conditioning Superstitious behaviour Shaping – Process of teaching a complex behaviour by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour Biological constraints – Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviours Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cognitive-Social Approaches to Learning Latent learning – A new behaviour is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cognitive-Social Approaches to Learning Observational learning – Learning through observing the behaviour of another person called a model – Studies indicate that watching violence makes one more likely to act aggressively. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.