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CHAPTER 6
Learning
• Learning = any relatively durable change in behavior or
knowledge that is due to experience
• Conditioning = learning associations between events that
occur in an organism’s environment.
Associative Learning

Occurs when we form connections among stimuli
and/or behaviors
• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the
capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked
by another stimulus.
Pavlov’s Demonstration: “Psychic
Reflexes”
• This kind of conditioning was originally described by Ivan
Pavlov, who conditioned dogs to salivate in response to
the sound of a tone.
The Classical Conditioning Process –
Before Conditioning
The Classical Conditioning Process –
During and After Conditioning
Sequence of Events in Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Terms
Term
Abbreviatio Definition
n
Unconditioned
stimulus
US
A stimulus that naturally and reliably evokes
a response
Unconditioned
response
UR
The response that is naturally and reliably
elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Neutral stimulus
NS
A stimulus that does not initially elicit the
unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
CS
A stimulus that was once neutral but,
through association with the US, now elicits
a response
Conditioned response
CR
After conditioning has occurred, the
response that is elicited by the conditioned
stimulus
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
• Many everyday responses are regulated through classical
conditioning, including emotions.
• For example, phobias and milder anxiety responses can be
acquired when stimuli are paired with traumatic events
• Even subtle physiological responses such as immune
system functioning & sexual arousal respond to classical
conditioning.
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
• Evaluative conditioning = changes in the liking of a
stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other
positive or negative stimuli.
• Advertising campaigns routinely try to take advantage of evaluative
conditioning
•
Source: Microsoft ClipArt
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition = initial stage of learning a new response
tendency.
• Stimulus contiguity plays a key role in acquisition, but it does
not produce conditioning automatically.
• Stimuli are contiguous if they occur together in time and space.
Contingency and Contiguity
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
• Extinction = gradual weakening & disappearance of a
conditioned response, which happens when a CS is no
longer paired with the US.
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
• Spontaneous recovery = reappearance extinguished
response after period of nonexposure to conditioned
stimulus.
• Renewal effect—if response is extinguished in different
environment than it was acquired, the extinguished
response will reappear if the animal is returned to the
original environment where acquisition took place.
Basic Processes in Classical
Conditioning
• Stimulus generalization = an organism that has learned a
response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way
to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
• The more similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the
likelihood of generalization.
Stimulus Discrimination
• Stimulus discrimination = an organism that has learned a
response to a specific stimulus does not respond in same
way to new stimuli that are similar to original stimulus.
• The less similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the
likelihood (and ease) of discrimination.
“Little Albert” Study
• Watson & Rayner (1920) examined generalization of
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conditioned fear in an 11-month-old boy “Little Albert.”
Like many babies, Albert was initially unafraid of a live
white rat.
Paired presentation of rat w/ loud, startling sound.
Albert did show fear in response to the loud noise.
After seven pairings of rat & gong, the rat was established
as a CS eliciting a fear response.
5 days later, exposed youngster to other stimuli
resembling the rat in being white and furry.
Results = Albert’s fear response generalized to variety of
stimuli, including rabbit, dog, fur coat, Santa Claus mask,
& Watson’s hair.
Higher-Order Conditioning
• Higher-order conditioning = a conditioned stimulus
functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.
• 1st phase = neutral stimulus (such as a tone) paired with
unconditioned stimulus (e.g. meat powder) until it becomes a
conditioned stimulus eliciting response originally evoked by US
(e.g. salivation).
• 2nd phase = another neutral stimulus (such as a red light) is paired
with previously established CS (the tone), so that it also acquires
the capacity to elicit the response originally evoked by the US.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
“Operant conditioning shapes behavior as a sculptor
shapes a lump of clay.” - Skinner
Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning = form of learning in which voluntary
responses come to be controlled by their consequences.
• Research shows:
• Classical conditioning sometimes contributes to the regulation of
voluntary behavior;
• Operant conditioning can influence involuntary, visceral responses;
• 2 types of conditioning jointly and interactively govern some
aspects of behavior
Skinner’s Demonstration: It’s All a
Matter of Consequences
• Skinner stated organisms tend to repeat those responses
that are followed by favorable consequences.
• Reinforcement = an event following a response increases
an organism’s tendency to make that response.
Terminology & Procedures
• Skinner box = small enclosure in which an animal can
make a specific response that is systematically recorded
while the consequences of response are controlled
• Dependent variable (DV) = rate of response over time,
• Independent variable (IV) = record of responding & reinforcement
as a function of time.
Terminology & Procedures
• Results are usually
portrayed in
graphs.
• a rapid response rate
= steep slope
• a slow response rate
= shallow slope.
Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
• Operant responses are typically established through a
gradual process called shaping.
• reinforcement of closer & closer approximations of a desired
response.
• used in teaching both animals & humans (e.g. training animals to
perform unnatural tricks)
Basic Processes in Operant
Conditioning
• Extinction = Learned behaviors
stop when they are no longer
followed by a reinforcing
consequence
Basic Processes in Operant
Conditioning
• Resistance to extinction = an organism continues to make
response after delivery of reinforcer after it has been
terminated.
• Discriminative stimuli = cues that influence operant
behavior by indicating the probable consequences
(reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.
Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning
Process and Definition
Description in
Classical
Conditioning
Description in Operant
Conditioning
Acquisition: The initial
stage of learning
CS and US are
paired, gradually
resulting in CR.
Responding gradually
increases because of
reinforcement, possibly
through shaping.
Extinction: The gradual
weakening and
disappearance of a
conditioned response
tendency
CS is presented
alone until it no
longer elicits CR.
Responding gradually slows
and stops after reinforcement
is terminated.
Stimulus generalization:
An organism’s responding
to stimuli other than the
original stimulus used in
conditioning
CR is elicited by
new stimulus that
resembles original
CS.
Responding increases in the
presence of new stimulus
that resembles original
discriminative stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination:
An organism’s lack of
response to stimuli that
are similar to the original
stimulus used in
conditioning
CR is not elicited
by new stimulus
that resembles
original CS
Responding does not
increase in the presence of
new stimulus that resembles
original discriminative
stimulus.
Reinforcement: Consequences That
Strengthen Responses
• Primary reinforcers = events that are inherently reinforcing
because they satisfy biological needs.
• Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers = events that acquire
reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary
reinforcers.
•
Source: Microsoft ClipArt
Patterns of Reinforcement
• In operant conditioning, a favorable outcome is much more
likely to strengthen a response if outcome follows immediately
• Schedule of reinforcement = specific pattern of presentation of
reinforcers over time
• Continuous reinforcement = every instance of a designated
response is reinforced
• Intermittent reinforcement = a designated response is
reinforced only some of the time.
Patterns of Reinforcement
• Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule= reinforcer is given after fixed
number of nonreinforced responses
• Child receives gold star for every 5 chores that are completed.
• Variable-ratio (VR) schedule = reinforcer is given after a
variable number of nonreinforced responses
• Child receives gold star about every 5 chores but varies from one
time to the next
Patterns of Reinforcement
• Fixed-interval (FI) schedule = reinforcer is given for first
response that occurs after a fixed time interval has
elapsed.
• Child receives gold star for every 5 chores once a day only.
• Variable-interval (VI) schedule the reinforcer is given for
the first response after a variable time interval has
elapsed
• Child receives gold star for every 5 chores with varying time
between reinforcer given
Effects of Reinforcement Schedules
Schedules of Reinforcement and Patterns of Response
Consequences of Conditioning


Add some element to one’s environment (“positive”), or
remove an element (“negative”)
This can lead to an increase in the behavior
(“reinforcement”), or a decrease in the behavior
(“punishment”)
Outcome
Add stimulus to
environment
Remove stimulus from environment
Make behavior
more frequent
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Make behavior
less frequent
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Positive Reinforcement Versus
Negative Reinforcement
• Avoidance learning = organism acquires a response that
prevents aversive stimulation by learning a signal that
serves as warning of impending noxious stimulation.
• Process of avoidance learning may shed light on why
phobias are so difficult to eliminate.
Punishment: Consequences That
Weaken Responses
• Punishment occurs when an event following a response
weakens the tendency to make that response.
• Review of 88 studies (Gershoff, 2002) concluded that
physical punishment is associated with
• poor-quality parent-child relations
• elevated aggression & delinquency
• behavioral problems in youngsters
• Recent research suggests corporal punishment may
inhibit cognitive development in children.
Operant Conditioning - Negative
Reinforcement vs Positive Punishment
CHANGING DIRECTIONS IN
THE STUDY OF
CONDITIONING
Recognizing Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
• Conditioned taste aversion studies = it was almost
impossible to create certain associations, whereas tastenausea associations (and odor-nausea associations)
were almost impossible to prevent.
• Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired even
when a lengthy delay occurs between the CS and US.
Recognizing Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
• Preparedness = species-specific predispositions to be
conditioned in certain ways and not others.
• Preparedness appears to explain why people acquire
phobias of ancient sources of threat much more readily
than modern sources of threat.
• Findings on conditioned taste aversion & preparedness
led to conclusion there are biological constraints on
conditioning.
Recognizing Cognitive Processes in
Conditioning
• Environmental stimuli serve as signals & some stimuli are
better, or more dependable, signals than others.
• Signal relations = the predictive value of a CS is influential
factor governing classical conditioning.
• When response is followed by desirable outcome, the
response is more likely to be strengthened if it appears to
have caused the outcome.
Response-Outcome Relations and
Reinforcement
• Noncontingent reinforcement = when response is
accidentally strengthened by a reinforcer that follows it,
even though delivery of reinforcer was not a result of the
response.
• Noncontingent reinforcement, Cognitive biases, and
irrational reasoning appear to contribute to superstitious
behavior.
Recognizing Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
• Studies of signal relations and response-outcome
relations suggest that cognitive processes play a larger
role in conditioning than originally believed.
•
Source: Microsoft ClipArt
OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
Observational learning = when an organism’s
responding is influenced by observation of others, who
are called models.
Basic Processes of Observational
Learning (OL)
• An organism is conditioned vicariously by watching a
model’s conditioning.
• Both classical & operant conditioning can occur through
OL.
• OL is important because it extends the reach of classical
and operant conditioning.
•
Source: Microsoft ClipArt
4 key processes crucial in OL
• Attention = you must pay attention to another person’s
behavior and its consequences.
• Retention = store a mental representation of what you
have witnessed in your memory.
4 key processes crucial in OL
• Reproduction. Enacting a modeled response depends on
your ability to reproduce response by converting your
stored mental images into overt behavior.
• Motivation. Finally, you are unlikely to reproduce an
observed response unless you are motivated to do so.
Your motivation depends on whether you encounter a
situation in which you believe that the response is likely to
pay off for you.
Figure 6.16 OL
Observational Learning & the Media
Violence Controversy
• Study by Bandura & colleagues = exposure to aggressive
TV models led to increased aggression in children,
especially when the TV models were reinforced for their
aggression.
•
Source: Microsoft ClipArt
Observational Learning & the Media
Violence Controversy
• Modern research on effects of media violence, both
experimental & correlational studies suggest that violent
TV shows, movies, & video games contribute to increased
aggression among children and adults.
• Exposure to media violence also appears to desensitize
people to the effects of aggression in the real world.
Three Types of Learning
The difference between classical and
operant conditioning - Peggy Andover
Homework
• Due Monday March 13th in class.
• Complete Personal Application: Achieving Self-Control
Through Behavior Modification
• Write Responses to Key Learning Goals 6.6 on pg.
215
• One page typed, times new roman 12pt. font