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Section 1 Interactive Study Guide Chapter 8 Learning 1. A relatively permanent change in behavior based on prior experiences defines learning a. What do behaviorists believe to be evidence of learning? Observable behavior b. What do cognitivists believe to be evidence of learning? Mental process c. Which behaviorists believed just because the mind could not be observed it therefore should not be studied? John B. Watson d. Who, however, believed that it is a person’s mental representations in our mind that influence learning? Edward Tolman and Robert Rescorla Classical Conditioning 2. Who discovered that while researching the digestive systems of dogs that when his assistant made a clanging sound with the dogs’ food dishes that the dogs began to salivate before the presence of food was shown? Ivan Pavlov a. Pavlov discovered that the repeated pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus can produce the same behavior which he referred to this process as classical conditioning a. An event that produces, or elicits, an automatic or unlearned response is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US) b. An automatic or unlearned response that is preceded, or elicited, by an unconditioned stimulus is called the unconditioned response (UCR/UR) c. A stimulus that does not elicit a response prior to learning is called the neutral stimulus (NS) d. An original neutral stimulus that has been paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus to produce, or elicit, a conditioned response is called the conditioned stimulus (CS) e. A response/reaction elicited by the conditioned stimulus is called the conditioned response (CR) Section 1 Interactive Study Guide Chapter 8 Pavlov’s Experiment 3. During the initial phase of the experiment, Pavlov and his associates placed food or meat powder (unconditioned stimulus UCS/ US) on the tongue of one of the dogs. The food or meat powder (UCS/US) automatically produced saliva (unconditioned response UCR/UR) in the dog’s mouth; the production of saliva is a reflex an involuntary response elicited from a stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) always produces an unconditioned response (UCR) prior to learning. a. During the second phase of the experiment, Pavlov introduced a musical tone, which served as the neutral stimulus (NS). A tone was then presented with the food or meat powder (UCS/US). After repeated pairings, the tone no longer served as the neutral stimulus, but changed to the conditioned stimulus CS. When the conditioned stimulus (the tone) was presented to the dog, he responded by salivating (conditioned response CR) Keeping the conditioned stimulus (CS) –conditioned response (CR) connection does require that unconditioned stimulus (UCS) be presented periodically. b. To ensure that the bell/tone/object was associated with salivation (CR), Pavlov would present the meat powder (UCS) with the bell/tone/object (CS) periodically. Factors in Classical Conditioning Generalization 4. In Pavlov’s experiment, the dogs were conditioned to salivate to a tone or object. Once the association was established, Pavlov noticed that the dogs were also salivating to similar tones or objects. The tendency for a conditioned response (behavior) to be elicited by similar stimuli is called generalization Discrimination 5. Differentiating between two stimuli is advantageous; Pavlov understood the profound effects of this differentiation and started to condition his dogs to salivate to a particular, specific tone. The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and similar stimuli that are not associated with the unconditioned stimulus is called discrimination Second-Order (High Order) Conditioning 6. Once the CR has been associated with the CS, it is possible to condition other neutral stimuli. A new neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the conditioned stimulus in order to elicit the same conditioned response is called second or higher-order conditioning Section 1 Interactive Study Guide Chapter 8 a. Pavlov demonstrated this by pairing a tone (CS) that elicited salivation (CR) with a light (NS). After repeated trials the light became a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited the salivation (CR) Extinction 7. When a conditioned stimulus (CS) no longer elicits the conditioned response (CR), it is said to experience extinction. When the conditioned stimuli no longer elicits the conditioned response after repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS is called extinction Reconditioning and Spontaneous Recovery 8. Extinction successfully disrupts the (CS)-(CR) association. However, this connection is simply inhibited rather than lost forever. If the (UCS) is once again presented with the (CS) the previously acquired (CS)-(CR) will return this is known as reconditioning (process) a quick relearning of a previously extinct (CS)-(CR) association. a. The abrupt return of the (CS)-(CR) association is known as spontaneous recovery (result) the recovery of a previously extinguished response after a passage of time. Little Albert 9. In 1920 an experiment took place that launched American Behaviorism. John B. Watson wanted to apply Ivan Pavlov’s principles of conditioned reflexes to human beings. Watson believed that science must be observable and nurture (environment) was only thing responsible for human development. Watson and Rosalie Rayner set out to condition fear in a human (very controversial experiment because Watson did not have permission from parents- would not be able to be done today.) In the initial part of the experiment Watson exposed 9 month-old Albert to a series of neutral stimuli, white rat, rat, dog, cotton balls, to test his emotional reaction, in which Albert did not show any initial fears. a. Fill out the diagram for the “Little Albert” experiment: Loud noise Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) White rat Neutral Stimulus + >>>>>> Crying/fear Unconditioned Response (UCR) Loud noise >>>>>>> Crying/fear Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response White rat ====== Crying/fear Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) b. Watson began trials of second-order (higher order) conditioning by pairing the white rat with other neutral stimuli such as a white rabbit and white mask. This led to generalization his fear of similar stimuli that shared similar characteristics. Section 1 Interactive Study Guide Chapter 8 Applications of Classical Conditioning 10. To treat phobias, some therapists continuously expose an individual to the fear-evoking conditioned stimulus to eliminate the conditioned response (fear) is called flooding through constant exposure to the fear-evoking stimuli the (CS)-(CR) association will become extinct. a. A less aversive treatment for phobias, consists of exposing the patient to a series of approximations to the anxiety-producing stimulus under relaxed conditions until finally the anxiety reaction is extinguished is called systematic desensitization, which involves the therapist diagrams a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli (from least to most frightening for the client) which then the client will progress through learning to associate a relaxation technique with each fearevoking stimuli. b. Another technique for treating phobias, involves pairing the fear-evoking stimuli with a pleasant stimulus to reverse the effects of the phobia called counterconditioning, for example pairing a favorite food with the phobia Conditioned Taste Aversion 11. When exposure to a noxious substance causes sickness and results in the individual associating the food with the sickness, making him or her avoid that food in the future is called conditioned taste aversion a. Unlike most forms of classical conditioning that require the (UCS) and the (CS) to be paired closely together and repeated multiple times, taste aversion paired closely together b. Evolutionary psychologists believe that taste aversions promote survival of species, by being able to quickly learn what foods make them sick