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Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
Policy Brief Series
ISSN 2410-4930
Issue 1 | Vol. 3 | February 2017
The Migration, Environment
and Climate Change: Policy Brief
Series is produced as part of the
Migration, Environment and
Climate Change: Evidence for
Policy (MECLEP) project funded by
the European Union, implemented
by IOM through a consortium with
six research partners.
A typical Mongolian ger in Selenge Province, Mongolia. © IOM 2016
The changing climates, cultures
and choices of Mongolian
nomadic pastoralists
Jasmine Neve, IOM Mongolia
Rachael Diniega, Fulbright Scholar
Sumiya Bilegsaikhan, Independent Researcher
Benoit Mayer, Chinese University of Hong Kong
1.Introduction
Climate change and natural disasters are reported to have
caused the displacement of millions of people worldwide
(IDMC and NRC, 2015:8). Mongolia’s unique geographical
location,1 harsh climate and the dependence of the
1 Mongolia has an already harsh continental climate due to its
geographic location in the central Eurasian continent, landlocked,
surrounded by high mountains with an average altitude of 1.5 km
(MEGD, 2014:66).
nation’s rural population on animal husbandry make it
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Ministry of
Environment and Green Development (MEGD), 2014:22).
Mongolia is already experiencing dramatic rural-to-urban
migration, with the urban population as a percentage of
the total having increased from 57 per cent in 2000, to
International Organization for Migration
The UN Migration Agency
This project is funded by the
European Union
10_17
This project is implemented by the
International Organization for Migration
Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
Policy Brief Series
Issue 1 | Vol. 3 | February 2017
2
A flock of sheep that did not survive dzuds, 2011.
over 72 per cent in 2015 (World Bank, 2016).2 This is a
result of multiple factors,3 including declining livelihood
opportunities in rural areas, a phenomenon exacerbated
by environmental changes and natural disasters, such as
drought and dzud4 (MEGD, 2014:146–7). Ongoing climate
change is expected to present a growing challenge to the
traditional pastoral way of life of many in Mongolia and
likely to continue to impact human mobility (ibid., 144).
Mongolia, including some of the conceptual challenges
related to nomadic pastoralism and displacement, and
the complexity of decision-making when it comes to
migration. The policy brief then provides an analysis of
the key policy challenges, and a summary of relevant
policies and programmes in place that contribute to
addressing these challenges. Lastly, the policy brief
provides some conclusions and recommendations.
This policy brief provides an overview of the link between
natural disasters, climate change and migration in
2. Natural disasters, climate change
and migration in Mongolia
2 The main destination areas are the capital, Ulaanbaatar, the
second largest urban centre, Darkhan, and the mining towns of
Umnugobi province (NSO, 2016).
3 These factors include political change following the shift to
a multiparty democracy, and changes in the constitution of
Mongolian in 1992 that allowed “freedom of movement within
the country and freedom to choose the place of one’s residence”
(The State Great Khurul of the Mongolian People’s Republic, 1992:
art. 6).
4 Dzud is a complex natural disaster unique to Mongolia. It typically
consists of a summer drought followed by a deterioration of the
weather conditions in winter, and a spring during which shortage
of pasture and water leads to large scale death of animals
(UNOCHA, 2016:1; CFE-DMHA, 2014:20). Dzuds come in various
forms, including white dzud (thick snow covers pastureland),
black dzud (little snow, and colder than average temperatures),
iron dzud (cover of ice over pastureland), hoof dzud (drought)
or combined dzud (a combination of the above) (CFE-DMHA,
2014:20). Dzud conditions typically evolve slowly, but can be
triggered by rapid-onset events such as snowstorms. The term
dzud implies both exposure to weather conditions and also the
impacts (Marin, 2010:163).
Natural disasters, including drought and dzud, are known
drivers of migration and displacement in Mongolia
(Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor et al., 2009:104).
Mongolia is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change, with warming already occurring at more
than twice the global average (MEGD, 2014). Continuing
climate change is expected to increase the extent and
frequency of natural disasters such as drought and dzud
(MEGD, 2014:144).5
5 The summer drought index is expected to increase from -0.24
in 1990 (1980–1999 average) to 2.63–2.45 by 2055 (2046–2065
average), the dzud index is expected to increase from -0.69 in 1990
to 1.97–2.44 by 2055; and the animal mortality rate is expected to
increase from 2.1 per cent in 1990 to 9.39–10.1 per cent by 2055,
based on Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A2 and
SRES B1 scenarios respectively (MEGD, 2014:144).
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The way that natural disasters and environmental
changes influence migration patterns in a nomadic
society is complex. Herding remains a primary source
of livelihood in Mongolia, and nomadic movements
from one pastureland to another have long been a way
of coping with extreme weather and environmental
fluctuations (Lkhagvadorj et al., 2013). Many herders
have already noticed environmental changes, such as
rangeland degradation, changing precipitation patterns
and desertification that have affected their livestock,
leading to adjustments in herding practices. Some
herders change their seasonal mobility patterns to
adapt to changing season timings, while others cope
through using quick or unexpected movements to better
pasturelands in times of emergencies. Both strategies
in moving to other herders’ traditional pasturelands
can trigger or exacerbate latent conflict that current
institutions struggle to regulate (Diniega, 2016). Tubach
(2016) argues that changing environmental conditions
have exceeded the limits of traditional adaptive
strategies such as nomadic movements and that herders
are now facing “menacing uncertainty” rather than
merely “calculable risks”.
livestock was lost. More than half of the country’s
herders were affected by the dzud (Sternberg, 2010 in
IPCC, 2014:501). Although consistent data on internal
migration in Mongolia remain limited, Government and
United Nations (UN) reports and anecdotal observations
converge to indicate that many herders from dzudimpacted regions moved to urban areas, in particular
Ulaanbaatar, in search of alternative livelihoods, either
immediately after or in the years following natural
disasters (see for example UNOCHA, 2010:12; National
Statistics Office of Mongolia (NSO), 2016; IOM, 2010;
Fernandez-Gimenez, Batjav and Baival, 2012:3). Dzuds
and the ensuing loss of livestock exacerbate the factors
that drive rural-to-urban migration in Mongolia.
The graph below shows adult animal losses (thousand
heads), which is an indicator of dzud years, overlaid
with urban population change year by year.6 Based on
NSO data, the graph shows a steady increase in the
population of urban areas, with notable peaks in 1999
and 2010, which coincide with dzud years. The NSO does
not currently survey migration resulting from dzud or
drought.7
Natural disasters, which are increasing in frequency,
may also be driving some pastoralists away from herding
altogether (Save the Children, 2013:3). Mongolia was
impacted by three consecutive nationwide dzuds
between 1999 and 2002, which killed close to one
third of Mongolia’s livestock (Lise, Hess and Purev,
2006 in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), 2014:501). Mongolia was again impacted by a
dzud in 2009 and 2010, in which a fifth of the national
6 Urban population includes population residing in Ulaanbaatar
City, aimag (province) centres and towns, while the rural
population includes populations residing in soum (sub-province)
centres and rural areas (NSO, 2016).
7 There are some discrepancies in NSO data for different indicators.
The above figure is based on data provided for “population of
Mongolia, by regions, aimags and the capital, urban and rural”
(total urban), and “losses of adult animals by type, region,
aimags, the capital, soums and bags” (total).
Figure 1: Losses of adult animals (thousand heads) and urban population change in Mongolia (change year on year)
160,000
10,000
120,000
8,000
6,000
80,000
4,000
40,000
2,000
0
0
-2,000
1995
-4,000
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
-40,000
Year
Urban population change (year on year)
Source: NSO, 2016.
2005
Losses of adult animals (thousand heads)
Urban population change (year on year)
Losses of adult animals (thousand heads)
12,000
Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
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Issue 1 | Vol. 3 | February 2017
3.Migration decisions of pastoral nomads
The distinction between “forced” and “voluntary”
migration is often unclear, and decision-making on the
subject is complex. This is particularly so when population
movements are associated with slow-onset disasters or
gradual environmental change, and when populations
lead traditionally nomadic, pastoral ways of life (IDMC
and NRC, 2016:50; IDMC, 2014). The 2015‒2016 studies
with migrants and source populations conducted by
the authors showed that herders’ migration decisions
depend not only on environmental triggers, but also on
other multiple factors, such as social capital, education
and employment opportunities, health-care needs, local
government safety nets, age and gender (Bilegsaikhan,
2015; Diniega, 2016). Complementary to the findings
of a 2009 population survey, the authors found that
social or family connections, employment and education
opportunities, as well as loss of livestock due to drought
and dzud were among the most often cited reasons
for migration (Bilegsaikhan, 2015; Diniega, 2016; and
Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor et al., 2009:104).8
The numerous factors influencing herders’ migration
decisions make it difficult to distinguish between forced
and voluntary migration. While some herders undertook
what may be perceived as “forced” migration when they
moved to urban areas in direct response to a dzud and
its unrecoverable impact on the households’ livelihood,
other migration following natural disasters fall in the
spectrum between forced and voluntary (Bilegsaikhan,
2015). Some herders decided to move to the city because
of perceived risk, after witnessing the impact of dzud on
neighbours, or simply because they were considering
migrating anyway (ibid.). Natural disasters influence
migration not just during and just after the event, but
also through their economic impact over the following
years (UNOCHA, 2010:5). Thus, in different cases, natural
disasters and climate change may be understood as
factors that directly force herders to migrate, factors
that reinforce or trigger decisions to migrate, and also
factors that increase the vulnerability and sensitivity of
households and communities.
8 It is worth noting that the population survey was conducted
between July 2007 and February 2009, prior to the 2009/2010
dzud (Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor et al., 2009:14).
Bilegsaikhan (2015) found that factors such as education or
employment opportunities were often couple or reinforced by
dzud and degraded pastureland. In addition to the factors listed,
Diniega (2016) also found that age was a reoccurring factor, and
that social connections formed the basis of where people chose
to migrate to.
4
Conversely, when it comes to non-migration decisions,
some herders reported that they wanted to move after a
dzud but were unable to due to age or lack of resources,
while others exercised their agency by choosing to stay
even in the face of environmental threats or livestock
loss. Some herders who lost many animals compared
their losses to others’ in forming their thought process
and decided to stay to rebuild their livelihoods as herders
(Diniega, 2016). Those who stayed behind rather than
migrating became more vulnerable to lingering dzud
effects or other environmental changes in the following
years (ibid.). In recent years, some migrants have been
returning to herding due to hardships in urban areas
and a perception that the environment has become
more conducive to herding since the major dzud (ibid.).
Although not well documented, there is anecdotal
evidence that some dzud-affected migrants wanted to
return to herding in rural areas, but lacked the means to
do so (IOM, 2014:7).
4.Policy challenges
There appear to be two main policy challenges resulting
from this dramatic rural-to-urban migration. The
first is attending to the needs and rights of displaced
populations in urban areas, and the second is addressing
the issues among rural and herder populations that
make them vulnerable in the first place.
Most internal migrants in Mongolia settle in ger districts
on the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar, which make up close to
60 per cent of Ulaanbaatar’s population (United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), 2016b:112). The rapid
growth of the population in these ger districts has already
outpaced the Government’s provision of basic services.
Many in the ger areas live below the national poverty
line9 and lack access to central heating, running water,
sewage and sanitation systems. Many new migrants
lack the livelihood skills that are suited to urban living
and have limited access to economic opportunities. This
exacerbates social issues including alcoholism, domestic
violence and environmental degradation, including air
pollution, as most migrants rely on coal-burning stoves to
heat their homes during the winter months10 (NSO, Asian
9 According to UNDP, while poverty has declined in Mongolia in
recent years, more than one person in five is still living below
the national poverty line (2016:121). Inequality and intra-urban
differentials in income, employment, poverty and access to
services were quite apparent in the ger districts of Ulaanbaatar.
In 2010, the access to adequate basic infrastructure ranged from
21.3 per cent in one Ulaanbaatar district to 74.2 per cent in one
of the poorer districts (ibid., 122).
10 People living in ger districts rely on coal-burning stoves to heat
their homes throughout the winter months (October–March),
when temperatures drop as low as -40 degrees Celsius (UNICEF,
2016b:8).
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Ger district. © IOM 2016
Development Bank (ADB) and World Bank, 2006:37).
Poverty and lack of livelihood opportunities can increase
the risk of human trafficking or migrants being co-opted
into informal mining activities (IOM, 2010:23).
In order to minimize the extent of forced migration and
protect the rights of exposed populations, it is important
to focus on expanding freedom of choice and providing
opportunities for source populations of herders to
stay in their place of origin. This may involve reducing
social vulnerabilities and improving resilience to natural
disasters. Programmes aimed at supporting climatesensitive agricultural practices, alternative livelihood
opportunities, and improved social services in regional
areas may reduce the incidence of forced migration and
improve the ability of non-urban populations to stay in
their place of origin.
Map 1: Net migration to Ulaanbaatar from Mongolia’s regions
within one year to the date of the 2010 census
Ulaanbaatar
Khangai Region
14,287
Eastern Region
5,835
Western Region
10,087
Central Region
5,020
Note: Numbers represent net migration (immigration minus emigration), of the resident population from each region,
to Ulaanbaatar within one year to the date of the 2010 census.
Source: NSO, 2011.
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5.Policy analysis
The Government of Mongolia has made commitments
related to the protection of human rights and adopted
policies related to sustainable development. Although
these policies do not specifically address migration
in relation to natural disasters or climate change,
several policies or programmes touch upon climate
change adaptation, disaster preparedness, regional
development and improving conditions for migrants
in urban settlements. Table 1, a non-exhaustive list,
summarizes some of the main policies and programmes
that are currently in place.
Table 1: Key policies and programmes
Policy area
Internal migration
Key policies and programmes
The Mongolian Constitution allows “freedom of movement within the country and
freedom to choose the place of one’s residence” (The State Great Khurul of the
Mongolian People’s Republic, 1992: art. 6).
Under the Law of Mongolia on Land (2002), pastureland can only be possessed
collectively. The law defines responsibilities of local authorities in the preservation
and use of pastureland (The State Great Khurul of the Mongolian People’s Republic,
2002: art. 54).
In 2010, the Mongolian Parliament prepared a proposal for a new legislation on
pastureland uses. Concerns have been raised on this legislation, which is still in
draft (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2017a).
Climate change
As a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the
Paris Agreement, Mongolia has adopted a nationally determined contribution with
climate change mitigation and adaptation components. Migration is not explicitly
referenced (Government of Mongolia, 2015b).
The Government of Mongolia supports sustainable development, in particular
through the adoption of Mongolia’s Sustainable Development Vision – 2030. It
includes an objective to “establish national capacity to cope with climate change,
and strengthen the system to prevent from meteorological hazard and natural
disaster risks” (2016:22).
The Government of Mongolia’s Green Development Policy and its Action Plan,
approved in 2016, includes an objective to “develop and implement a population
settlement plan in accordance with climate change, while considering the
availability of natural resources and the resilience of regions” (2015a:4).
Development support
to pastoralists and rural
populations
6
The FAO is implementing a project aimed at promoting quality employment
focusing on the livestock and agricultural sector: “Support to employment creation
in Mongolia (SECiM): Piloting quality private sector work in selected livestock and
vegetable value chains (2016–2019)” (FAO, 2017b).
The Government of Mongolia and the World Bank have worked together since 2002
on sustainable livelihood projects in Mongolia, to increase the flow of public and
private investment to herder communities. The current project is titled the Third
Sustainable Livelihoods Project for Mongolia (2013–2018) (World Bank, 2017).
The UNDP’s climate change adaptation programme in the Altai Mountain/Great
Lakes Basin and the Eastern Steppe in Mongolia contributes to building the
resilience of rural populations (UNDP, 2016a).
The Government’s Good Herder Program includes low interest loans for herder
families. As part of the programme, the Government also aims to improve
competitiveness of agriculture products by increasing efficiency and export (UB
Post, 2016).
ADB and UNICEF are also working to improve water, sanitation and hygiene in
schools in western regions of Mongolia (UNICEF, 2016a).
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Policy area
Disaster preparedness
Key policies and programmes
The Mongolian National Emergency Management Agency has engaged in disaster
preparedness and disaster risk reduction programmes along with national and
international partners including the Red Cross and the UN (see for example UNDP,
2016c).
The Mongolian Ministry responsible for agriculture, in collaboration with Mercy
Corps, the World Bank Group and others, developed a livestock early warning
system to strengthen local and national capacity to respond to early warning and
mitigate risk (World Bank, 2012).
The World Bank and the Government of Mongolia also introduced an index-based
livestock insurance scheme, which is helping herders mange climate-related risks
(World Bank, 2009).
Actions to improve
planning and services in
ger district areas
Actions have been taken to promote better conditions and better access to basic
services in the ger districts of Ulaanbaatar. In complement to efforts by the
Government of Mongolia, international partners such as UNICEF and UNDP, and
non-governmental organizations have played an important role.
The Government is conducting a 10-year term Ger District Development and
Investment Support Program (2014–2023) with the cooperation of ADB. The
project focuses on Ulaanbaatar City and involves sub-centre or urban corridor
redevelopment activities in ger areas and activities aiming to improve urban
services performance and delivery (ADB, 2015).
UNICEF established a memorandum of understanding with the Ulaanbaatar City
Governor’s Office in 2015 to improve the well-being of children living in the capital
and to reduce urban disparities in children’s access and utilization of basic social
services (UNICEF, 2016c:5).
Neighbourhood in Zuragt, Bayangol district, Ulaanbaatar. A typical neighbourhood of residence for urban migrants.
© 2015 (Photo: Sumiya Bilegsaikhan)
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Addressing the challenge will require a coordinated
approach among actors involved in urban planning,
development, service provision, disaster risk reduction
and climate change adaptation planning. Policy
interventions in Mongolia should aim to support
communities to build resilience and adapt to climate
change, encourage planning for future migration and
provide alternatives to migration through rights-based
regional development policies. More reliable empirical
data would help to identify specific governance needs
and options.
(iv) Develop evidence-based projections of future
migration trends.
(v) Promote further research and greater awareness
on the issues of nomadism, loss of livelihood
and rural-to-urban migration in the context of
climate change.
(b) Support regional development and adaptation to
climate change in places of origin
(i) Promote development policies that support the
livelihood and welfare of herders and non-urban
populations, including through land tenure
regulations sensitive to the context of nomadic
herders.
(ii) Provide support to rural populations to build
resilience to natural disasters and adapt to
climate change.
(iii) Facilitate improved coordination between
all actors, including subnational, national
and international organizations, and across
ministries, to ensure all affected regional
communities are protected.
6.Conclusions and recommendations
Natural disasters and climate change are exacerbating
the challenge of a rapid rural-to-urban migration in
Mongolia. This policy brief has highlighted that decisions
on whether or not to migrate following natural disasters
depend on many factors including social vulnerabilities,
perceptions of risk and access to opportunities. Despite
the various programmes and policies in place, adaptation
options in rural areas remain hindered by geographic
isolation and limited economic development (UNDP,
2016b:38). Moreover, many migrants who move to
urban areas still live below the national poverty line with
limited access to basic services. In order to address these
challenges, a coordinated approach focusing on regional
development, as well as proactive urban planning will be
required.
(c) Plan proactively for future migration in places of
destination
Based on the analysis above, recommendations for
specific targeted interventions are outlined below.
(a) Further research to enable evidence-based policies
and planning
(i) Improve the accessibility and availability of
existing statistical information.
(ii)Conduct further research, including data
collection and mapping on internal migration
and the influence of climate change and natural
disasters.
(iii)Conduct further research on the needs and
vulnerabilities of migrants, the impacts of
outmigration on rural communities, and
the impacts of in-migration on destination
communities, including gender and minority
issues.
8
(i) Protect the rights of migrants and enable
communities to migrate with dignity.
(ii) Improve coordination and proactive planning,
which includes consideration of future
migration trends, including urban planning
and development, social service planning, and
climate change adaptation planning.
(iii) Make further efforts to improve services
in urban settlements and consider ways of
creating safe employment opportunities for
migrants in destination areas, including through
occupational training.
(iv) For migrants wishing to return to their places
of origin, consider providing return and
reintegration assistance.
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html.jsp (accessed 25 November 2016)
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2013 Shifting Livelihoods: Trends of Pastoralist DropOut and Rural to Urban Migration in Mongolia.
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Report_March%202013_Mongolia%20-%20
FINAL.pdf
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and_energy/Ecosystem-based-AdaptationApproach-to-Maintaining-Water-Security-inCritical-Water-Catchments-in-Mongolia.html
Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
Policy Brief Series
Issue 1 | Vol. 3 | February 2017
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11
About the Authors
Sumiya Bilegsaikhan has a
master’s degree in Environmental
Planning from Seoul National
University. Her master’s thesis
in 2015 explored the effects of
climate change on livelihoods
and
migration
decisions
among recent urban migrants in Ulaanbaatar.
As an independent researcher, her present work
continues to focus on urban migration, local
experiences of climate and environmental change/
risk in context of urban centres in Asia.
Rachael Diniega completed a
master’s degree in Human Rights
and Cultural Diversity from the
University of Essex as a Fulbright
Scholar to the United Kingdom.
As a National Geographic
Young Explorer, she focused
her master’s dissertation on climate change and
migration in Mongolia, building on research begun
as an undergraduate at the University of Virginia.
She has also worked in sustainable community
development at the Research Institute for a
Sustainable Environment, the American University
in Cairo, Egypt.
Dr Benoit Mayer an Assistant
Professor at the Faculty of Law
of the Chinese University of
Hong Kong. He is also a Research
Associate at McGill University’s
Hans and Tamar Oppenheimer
Chair in Public International
Law, a Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for
International Sustainable Development Law, an
Associate Member at the National University of
Singapore’s Asia-Pacific Centre for Environmental
Law, and a Research Fellow at the Earth System
Governance project. His publications include three
books and more than 60 journal articles and book
chapters on the international governance of climate
change, including four articles focusing on climate
migration in Mongolia.
Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
Policy Brief Series
Issue 1 | Vol. 3 | February 2017
Jasmine Neve is a Programme
Management
Officer
with
IOM Mongolia. She completed
her
master’s
degree
in
International Relations focusing
on climate change migration
and international law at the
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Jasmine also has
undergraduate degrees in Climate Science and
Political Science from the University of Melbourne,
Australia and the University of Uppsala, Sweden.
Before joining IOM, Jasmine worked in climate
change policy and programmes with the
Government of Victoria in Australia.
Contact
To discuss any aspect of the Migration, Environment
and Climate Change: Policy Brief Series, or to submit an
article, please contact:
Frank Laczko ([email protected])
Susanne Melde ([email protected])
Sieun Lee ([email protected])
MECLEP ([email protected])
Website
The Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
Policy Brief Series can be accessed and downloaded
at IOM Online Bookstore http://publications.iom.int/
bookstore and at http://environmentalmigration.iom.int.
12
Editorial Board
ƒƒ Frank Laczko
Global Migration Data Analysis Centre, IOM
ƒƒ Dina Ionesco
Migration, Environment and Climate Change
Division, IOM
ƒƒ Susanne Melde
Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
Evidence for Policy, IOM
ƒƒ Sieun Lee
Migration, Environment and Climate Change:
Evidence for Policy, IOM
ƒƒ François Gemenne
University of Versailles Saint-Quentin
ƒƒ Jeanette Schade and Kerstin Schmidt
Bielefeld University
ƒƒ Sara Vigil
Center for Ethnic and Migration Studies,
University of Liège
ƒƒ Henri Entzinger and Peter Scholten
Research Center on Citizenship, Migration and
the City, Erasmus University Rotterdam
ƒƒ Jorge Mora Alfaro, Allen Cordero and Guillermo Lathrop
Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales
ƒƒ Robert Oakes
United Nations University Institute for the
Environment and Human Security
ƒƒ Pedro Wilfredo Lozano
Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Sociales,
Iberoamerican University
ƒƒ Le Anh Tuan
Research Institute for Climate Change,
DRAGON Institute, Can Tho University
ƒƒ Etienne Piguet
Institute of Geography, University of Neuchâtel
This publication has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed
in this publication can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union or of IOM.
International Organization for Migration
The UN Migration Agency
17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17, 1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland
Tel.: +41 22 717 9111 • Fax: +41 22 798 6150 • E-mail: [email protected] • Website: www.iom.int