Download Critique of “The Experimental Analysis of Behavior”

CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 1
Critique of “The Experimental Analysis of Behavior”
LEIT 642
Sheryl Lombardo
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 2
“The Experimental Analysis of Behavior” by B.F. Skinner was presented in the
American Scientist journal in 1957. In this explanation of his research with pigeons and
rats, one is given a glimpse into the world of behaviorism often cited by present-day
theorists, but only sporadically read in its original form. Skinner’s work in creating
behavioral criteria has great significance to the development of the field of Instructional
Technology. Instructional Technology has a great deal of its history rooted in
behaviorism. Indeed, even much of today’s Instructional Design methodologies borrow
heavily from behaviorism in their demand for observable results from instruction.
Skinner is often cited as one of the most famous of the 20th century behaviorist, but as
we shall see in the next section, behaviorism has its roots in the 19th century as well.
Behaviorism: Historical Overview
In 1873, Wilhelm Wundt published Principles of Physiological Psychology. This
book details Wundt’s theory that psychological methodologies could be based on
physiological methods (Schunk, 1996). Wundt, although a native of Germany,
established labs in the United States to attempt research on subjects through the use of
controlled stimuli and recorded response. In this way, he was one of the first to establish
psychology as a “hard” science. As we shall continue to see in further investigation of
this movement, in the attempt to create a “science” of behavior is a continuing theme
which will be revisited and upon which Skinners work is clearly based.
At the early part of the 20th century, Pavlov began his own experiments in Russia
involving classical conditioning techniques. His work with canine behavior, although
now fodder for jokes, established not only a link between stimulus-response, but more
importantly established that a consistent, desired response could be obtained the same
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 3
stimulus. In short, that one can not only observe a response, but can create the response
desired was a powerful discovery. About the same time Pavlov was working in this area,
another leading figure in behaviorism was emerging: John Watson.
It is important to place these two figures against the backdrop of the time period
from which they emerged. At the time Pavlov and Watson were experimenting and
publishing their work, John Dewey and William James were also publishing their main
works, influencing certainly Watson to a high degree. (Burton, Moore, Magliaro, 1996)
Watson was greatly influenced by the work of Pavlov and felt that although Pavlov’s
work was done primarily with animals, it could be transferred to the human learning
experience (Schunk, 1996) This line of inquiry is important to the further discussion
research experimentation from Skinner, as this was exactly what Skinner sought to do as
well. For both Watson and Skinner, behavior gave them some insight into the mind that
could be measured “scientifically,” just as biologists might observe and test amoebas.
Edward Thorndike also began publishing his work on behavior in 1913 using the
terms, “Laws of Exercise and Effect. ”(Schunk, 1996) The first law, that of exercise can
be stated as in relationship to its two parts: The Law of Use and the Law of Disuse. The
Law of Use claims that the use of a connection between stimulus and response increases
that connection’s strength. If a connection is not used, the strength of that connection is
weakened. The Law of Effect states that the consequence or outcomes of behavior shape
the learning experience. (Schunk, 1996) Although Thorndike had numerous theories
derived from a behaviorist viewpoint, these Laws had a great impact on the subsequent
work of Skinner.
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 4
It is from this early behaviorist theory and experimentation that Skinner derived
his own theories of Operant Conditioning summarized in his book The Behavior of
Organisms. (1938)
Overview of Articles Discussed
This paper will discuss two articles that explain the progression of Skinners
theories from experiments with animals to teaching techniques based on those theories.
The first article is entitled, “The Experimental Analysis of Behavior,” was published in
the Amercian Scientist journal in 1957. This article outlines his experiments in operant
conditioning with pigeons and rats. The second article is entitled, “Teaching Machines,”
was published a year later in Science magazine. In it, Skinner makes the great leap from
his lab experiments to his theories on learning based on those experiments.
Critique of “The Experimental Analysis of Behavior”
It is very clear from the onset of the research article that Skinner is attempting to
create legitimate hard “science” from the unclear aspects of human behavior. This article
provides the reader with some very noteworthy information, first of which is a narration
of his own research involving stimulus and response. The second section of the article is
a synopsis of research studies relevant to his own. This section would be particularly
valuable to persons studying the trend of behavioral research studies throughout the
forties and fifties. Skinner’s analysis of these studies is insightful considering his own
research interests.
For the first half of the article, he details his own research studies. He starts with
his research and analysis involving reinforcement and pigeons. In the “Operant
Conditioning” section, he very clearly details the parameters of this particular research
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 5
proposition. He gives an excellent description of “feedback” as well as explaining the
rationale behind the research itself. One interesting note at this point would be the
explanation of treatment of animal subjects. Modern research in this area would probably
not be as explicit regarding exactly what happened to animals participating in the
experiment. This explanation does give a very clear picture of exactly what happened
during the experiment, right down to illustrations and pictures of the experiment
conditions (see pgs 345, 354, 359). These visuals are very clear in comparison to the
charts indicating the results of experimentation. These charts are very difficult to read,
and it is difficult to ascertain the significance of these statistics for the layperson. Many
times statistics are given such as “…rates differed by as much as 2000:1.” (Skinner, p
344). However, the explanation of these rates are not given at the time the statistics are
quoted. Later in the research study, the rate is response to stimulus, for example 2000
responses are required to obtain 1 stimulus.
The next area of Skinner research is avoidance. His research involves electric
shocks and rats. The rats avoid the shocks by pressing a button for the researcher. The
researcher is attempting to create an avoidance pattern when the rat is given a shock.
Again, the critique of the charts is centered on their readability; they are very difficult for
the layperson to read. One strong point of this article is the excellent writing style of
Skinner. The report, minus the graphics, is so well written that it is enjoyable to read
even though the topic is less than thrilling.
The last section, mentioned previously, is the review of research studies relevant
to Skinner’s area of inquiry. Some of them are very similar, with dependant variables,
which have been changed from Skinner’s study. For example, in one, the rats avoiding
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 6
the electrical shocks have been given tranquilizers and amphetamines. Another has a
comparison between pigeons and psychotic humans’ stimulus/response. There are no
discussions of the ethical dimensions of using mentally ill people who may or may not be
aware that they are being compared to pigeons, and according to Skinner, the pigeons are
doing better.
Critique of “Teaching Machines”
Skinner begins this article with a description of the advances in audio-visual
technology and with the invention of the Pressey Teaching Machine. Skinner is
concerned with the advent of larger class sizes and the presentation of materials with no
activity on the part of the student. The description of the Pressey Teaching Machine
make it clear that through the use of a multiple-choice format, with the student responses
measured by the machine, such activity can be made “active.” However, the Pressey
Teaching Machine, introduced to the public in the 1920’s, did not become standard
school equipment. Skinner blames this lack of acceptance “…on cultural inertia; the
world of education was not ready for them.” (p.969)
Skinner then attempts to, using the behaviorist theory of motivation, describe the
criteria for a teaching machine. The features he points to as important are:
1. The composition of a response by the student rather than just a multiplechoice selection;
2. The students must proceed through the lesson in a linear fashion, each
section leading to a more complex and related section (p. 970)
He then explains several different emerging technologies that enable the student to
interact with the teaching machine in this fashion. Skinner envisions the use of these
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 7
teaching machines as a replacement for individualized human instruction or tutoring. He
sees the teaching machines as a solution to the overcrowded classroom.
He then moves on to the kind of material that might be presented in the teaching
machines. He describes the progression of material as appearing in “frames,” quite
prophetic given the design of frames in web pages. He considers mathematics and
spelling to be appropriate content matter to be taught by machine. His description of
teaching technique is the “drill and practice” model of learning material, certainly not
difficult for a machine.
He does point out some deficiencies inherent in teaching
machines for more advanced skills (he defines these as “thinking”) on page 975, “A more
sensible program is the analyze the behavior called thinking and produce it according to
specifications.” This appears to be a bizarre statement in current theoretical constructs
such as cognitive theory. How is “thinking” a behavior? At this point, even Skinner is
unable to define what “thinking” is in behavioral terms.
This is not a research article by Skinner, but rather a progression of his theories
from the laboratory to the classroom. What may be the most interesting outcome of such
an article is to understand how little ideas about educational media have changed over the
years. Looking at educational software or an educational website, the two hot medias of
today, one can see Skinners design for his teaching machines. Multiple choice (although
eschewed by Skinner) still flourish as form of simple stimulus/response. In fact, much of
what was said in the article about active learning through programmed materials could be
lifted wholesale out of this article and placed into an article about learning on the web.
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 8
Synthesis of Overview and Articles
A historical perspective gives one pause to look at the achievements of Skinner
and those who came before him. As mentioned at the beginning of this paper,
Instructional Technology owes its beginnings to the work of these theorists. While it is
difficult to critique men who were products of the time in which they lived, there are
many aspects of behaviorism that do not survive the great leap from theory into practice.
As can be demonstrated by the two articles selected from Skinner, work done in a
laboratory, while providing some insight into behavior of organisms, cannot always be
translated into sound instructional techniques. While the second article from Skinner
relies on the basic theories of operant conditioning, these theories are not acknowledged
or discussed as the viewpoint from which he is coming. It may be that Skinner was well
known at this time for his theories and no explanation was required. However, without
directly relating any of the designs for teaching machines back to his own research, they
were little more than opinions.
Conclusions
Skinner always strove to create a scientific veneer to his work on human behavior,
it was very important to both himself and other early behaviorists that human behavior
become a measurable commodity in order to enter into the realm of the physical sciences.
While it can be said that environment does influence behavior, behavior has far more
causes than this construct. The link between theory, based on animal responses, and
application, based on human understanding remains tenuous at best.
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 9
Appendix A
Criteria for Evaluation of Research Studies
1. Hypothesis is clearly stated.
Skinner does not meet these criteria in the article I reviewed. It may be that he was
so well known regarding his theories that he didn’t need to explain this to his
audience. However, even in the explanation of this experiments, he does not start
with his hypothesis, just how the experiment fits into his already existing model.
2. Important terms are defined.
Yes.
3. Historical placement of current research.
No, Skinner gives no history of his own research or the research of others.
4. Research Significance
Yes, the research is significant.
5. Parameters of the study are clearly detailed.
Yes, at the beginning of each description of research, Skinner clearly states what the
test does and does not show.
6. Data collection is based on sound research principles.
Yes.
7. Data are analyzed using sound statistical and analytical practices.
Yes.
8. Results are clearly stated and related back to original research question.
Results are clearly stated, but since the original research question was not stated,
there is nothing to relate them to.
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 10
9. Report is organized and well written.
Yes.
10. Conclusions are significant and will contribute to the knowledge base of the field.
Yes.
CRITIQUE OF HISTORICAL ARTICLE
Page 11
References:
Burton, J., Magliaro, S., & Moore, D. (1996) “Behaviorism and Instructional
Technology.” Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology,
Jonassen, ed. Washington DC: Association for Educational Communications and
Technology.
Schunk, D. (1996) Learning Theories. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Skinner, B. (1957) “The Experimental Analysis of Behavior.” American Scientist, (45)
No. 4.
Skinner, B. (1958) “Teaching Machines.” Science, (128) No.3330.