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Grammar and Mechanics Rules Sheet Appositives: a phrase that appears directly after a noun or pronoun to describe or rename the noun or pronoun. It is set off by a comma or commas. Jane, the best ballerina in the performance, shone as the star of the evening. The speaker today is John Grisham, the famous author. Transition Words: Helps paper read more smoothly, and, at the same time, allows the reader to flow more smoothly from one point to the next. Transitions enhance logical organization and understandability and improves the connections between thoughts. To continue a line of thinking: Also Clearly Futhermore Because Besides Since As well as To change a line of thinking: However On the other hand But Yet Nevertheless To begin a paragraph or line of thinking: Certainly Granted No doubt Obviously Of course True Unquestionably In general Capitalization Rules: No Excuses! Homophones Organizations Abbreviations Initials Acronyms First word in a sentence Pronoun I Titles Salutation and closing of a letter Geographical names and places Historical periods, events, documents Languages, races, nationalities Names (Emma, Mom, Dad, Bubba) They’re – they are There – a place Their – belongs to them (Transitions continued) To signal the wrap-up: Indeed In the final analysis In conclusion Therefore All in all To restate a point within a paragraph: In other words That is to say In short To show sequence or time: After As soon as At first At last Before Earlier In the first place In the meantime Later Meanwhile Next Soon Then Two – the number To – preposition giving a location Too – overly/also Buy, bye, by Were, We’re Where, wear Whether, weather Know, no Deer, dear Knew, new Commas in introductory elements: Prepositional phrase At noon, I will get lunch. Participle phrase Crying like a baby, he ran home. Infinitive phrase To be honest, I don’t want to go. Appositive phrase Our principal, Clay Hudgins, gave a great speech. Subordinate Clause If I went home first, I would be able to change clothes. Speaker Tag Shirley shouted, “Get over here!” Adverb Unfortunately, I couldn’t go. However, I will have to say “no.” Subject-Verb Agreement: Make sure the verb agrees with the subject A singular subject needs a singular verb Relative Pronouns: Who and Whom Refers to the subject To pick, substitute the words he and him. The girl reads mysteries. A plural subject needs a plural verb. The girls read mysteries. I wonder (who/whom) will be at practice today? He will be at practice today?* Him will be at practice today? Grammar and Mechanics Rules Sheet Prepositions: Shows how a noun or pronoun relates to another part of a sentence. He is part of a group. They often give a position or location in time or space. Clause: Has a subject and a verb S V Until I turn sixteen Phrase: May have a subject but NOT a verb. S He walked across the bridge. My brand new kitten It’s – It is It’s time to go. Its – possessive That is its name. Independent clause: Is a complete sentence. Simple sentence - a sentence with one clause (e.g., the chicken crossed the road) The dog ran away. Compound sentence - a sentence composed of at least two independent clauses linked with a conjunction (e.g., Sam talked, and Emma listened) Complex sentence - a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause (e.g., I cleaned the room when the guests left) Modifier - words that modify or make more specific the meanings of other words; includes words or phrases that act as adjectives and adverbs (e.g., The tired child fell off the swing.). The modifying phrase is next to or in clear relation to the intended word. Antecedent - a noun that a pronoun refers to (e.g., Iris is the antecedent of she in Iris tried, but she couldn't find the book) Parallel structure - the use of the same grammatical structure (i.e., noun phrases, verb phrases) within a sentence or in a bulleted list. Example of parallel structure: I like to swim, to dance, and to camp. Example of non-parallel structure: I like to swim, to dance, and go camping. Consistent tense - using the same verb tense throughout a sentence, paragraph, or essay. Shifting from one verb tense to another should be done only when demonstrating a shift in time. Dependent clause: Depends on something else to give it its meaning. It leaves you hanging. After the car backfired Together: The dog ran away after the car backfired. Or After the car backfired, the dog ran away. Subordinate conjunction : Connects an independent (main) clause to a dependent (subordinate) clause. Goes at the BEGINNING of a dependent clause As much as I like chocolate, the milkshake was too sweet for me. Conjunctive Adverbs: Connects two complete sentences. Ex.) However, finally, furthermore, indeed, meanwhile, nevertheless, therefore, unfortunately *Must use a semicolon or period in front of the conjunctive adverb! I bet you thought you wouldn’t have to learn another semicolon rule; however, you were wrong. Or I bet you thought you wouldn’t have to learn another semicolon rule. However, you were wrong. Semicolons: To separate two complete sentences I went to the store; I went home. Before a conjunctive adverb (See box below) To separate a series of phrases or clauses that have punctuation, like commas, in them The winning team included three boys from the same school: Joe Smith, the catcher; Jose Martinez, the short stop; and Dave Larsen, the right fielder. Colons: After an independent clause that introduces a list that follows On vacation, we traveled through three states: Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. After the salutation in a business letter Dear Sir: Hyphens: In a compound adjective (two adjectives joined together to describe the same noun) Gary Paulsen is a well-known author. In compound numbers The president must be thirty-five years old. With prefix ex- (meaning former), self-, and all- (e.g., ex-husband, self-righteous, all-inclusive); with the suffix -elect (e.g., president-elect) To divide words at the end of line when space is limited (make the breaks at syllable junctures) The intelligent boy was rewarded for his courage