Download AGED 601

AGED 601
MIDTERM REVIEW
LEARNING
 Both societies and individuals have vested interests in learning. To
o Individual:
 acquire a greater variety of leisure-time skills
 job-related skills
o Society:
 improve society
 raise standard of living
 informed electorate
 by age 10 children have an idea of how the world is – they spend the rest of their lives creating
that world
 Sources of knowledge
o Folklore and traditional wisdom (oral tradition may be true or not)
o Organized belief system (myth and philosophy (which contains religion))
o Empirical Research (issue, mind, mental processes)
 Philosophy of empiricism – belief in evidence supported by the scientific method
o Theory-a set of organized principles about particular events in an environment
 Frame work for research and practice
 Organization of Knowledge
 Identification of complex events
 Reorganization of prior experience
 Working model
o Theories of Learning
 Serve as a guideline in planning instruction
 Evaluate current curriculum materials
 Diagnose problems in a leaning environment
 Prescribe and evaluate research
 Learning is complex
o Learning and cognitive development are complex events in which the learner may be engaging in any of
several activities
 Evidence of Learning
o A measurable change in the behavior of an individual due to an educational experience.
 Theories of Learning
o Metacognitive – thinking about thinking – mind mapping is a metacognitive technique
o Behavioral (what is) vs. Cognitive (what we think is)
o Mental Discipline
 The mind is a key - it exists separately from the body, and is not matter
 All people are born with all knowledge and just need expert help recalling it
 At least three flavors of learners
 Bad, neutral, good
 Herbart: believed all children are bad!
 Colonial schools had whipping posts
 Learning should be hard, not fun!
 All three share the idea that leaning is a process of inner development, the development of the
mind-of mental discipline to develop skills or faculties
 2 primary faculties that can be improved:
 Memory
 Reason
o Apperception
 Idea Centered – an idea is the “real” thing
 An idea is apperceived when it appears in the consciousness and is assimilated with other
conscious ideas
 All ideas come from the outside-sensory
 The mind is simply the complete collection of these ideas and their associations
 Tabula Rasa – clean slate

Principle of frequency
 More often=stronger
 To make an idea die, never say it again: frequency=0
 Principle of association (very powerful)
 Associated with others=stronger
 5 steps in Herbartian learning – you aren’t helping a child learn an idea; you are helping an idea get into his head
o Preparation-associate with past ideas to gain interest
o Presentation-new idea
o Comparison-to old idea (form the association)
o Generalization-to new settings (increase associations)
o Application-apply the new idea
o
o Madeline Hunter made a similar, 7-step model
TWO SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES
 Behaviorist theory 1920-1950 (earliest)
 Pavlov
o Classical conditioning – used scientific method
o Nothing is in the mind – it’s all behavior
o Learning is the process of building conditioned reflexes through the substitution of one stimulus for
another
o Theory is that I can predictable substitute a different stimulus to cause a behavior
o For Pavlov’s dogs:
 Slobber = behavior
 Meat = unconditioned stimulus (always leads to behavior)
 Bell = conditioned stimulus
 Watson
o Purpose or thought have nothing to do with learning. It is all behavior (glandular excretion)
o Thought doesn’t even exist – it’s just a behavior called sub-vocal speech
 11 month old Albert and petting white furry animals
 Scared him when he saw white rat – after that, he was afraid of white furry things
 elicit emotional reactions through pairings
 Thorndike
o Learning is a process of stamping in a response that was originally accidental
o Learning is a more or less permanent change of behavior that results from practice - or the systematic
pairing of a stimulus and response combination
o There is no purpose assumed or required by the learner
 Kitty Cat Experiment – cats in a cage accidentally hit lever to get out to food, then “learned” it
o Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
 The Law of Exercise or Repetition
 The more times a stimulus response is repeated the longer it will last
 The Law of Effect
 A response is strengthened if it results in pleasure and weakened if it results in pain
 The Law of Readiness
 The pathways can be ready to be created
 Some people, for reasons unknown, are “ready to learn”
 May be biological, but not to Thorndike
 B. F. Skinner (student of Thorndike and the Laws of Learning)
o Black Box Metaphor of learning
 Behaviorists don’t care how it works, just that we can still control learning
 What happens in the black box is irrelevant
o Classical conditioning - Works with emotional responses
o Operant conditioning
 Found that the important element was not the trigger/stimulus of the behavior but the
outcome/consequences of the behavior

o
o
o
Behaviors ‘operate’ on the environment; producing consequences that affect the organism altering future behavior
 Based on – expands -- Thorndike’s law of Effect
 Discriminative Stimulus
 Any stimulus consistently present when a response is reinforced
 Increases the probability that a response will be repeated
 Conditioned stimulus is just a reminder of the reward (reinforcement)
 Response = Behavior
 Elicited Response – something you can already do
 Emitted response – complex behavior that comes from within: also called “Operants”
 Reinforcing Stimulus
 Reward is an attempt at reinforcement
 Must be seen as reinforcing by the learner
 Reinforce those behaviors that you want to reoccur
 Reinforcement is not the same as reward. A reward might not be reinforcing
 Two Principles of learning
 Variation and selection by consequence
 Must be a variety of behaviors, then we:
 Select the behaviors we want by consequence.
 Ignore the others – they will die
 Consequences must be reinforcing
 Consequences must be immediate
 If we delay consequence, we may be accidently reinforcing other behavior (what
happened right before reward)
 Extinction
 Killing off behaviors by not reinforcing
Shaping and Chaining
 Shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations to a goal behavior.
 Reward getting close
 Chaining is to string together simple behaviors the learner already knows to establish complex
behaviors

TIME
RATIO
Fixed interval
Fixed ratio
CONSISTENT
Variable interval
Variable ratio
UNEXPECTED
 Fixed Interval is least effective, variable ratio is most
 Ratio better than Interval, variable better than fixed
Advantages of Programmed Instruction (mechanical, not digital back then)
 Analysis of mental states like unmotivated (may mean the reward is not reinforcing)
 Behavior modification
 Analysis of classroom behaviors and interactions to identify inconsistent and noncontingent uses
of reinforcement
 Classroom management
 Skinner didn’t like group learning: reward may not be reinforcing to all
 Individualized learning materials
Disadvantages
 We can’t really analyze complex human behaviors
 Response frequency is not a good estimate of response probability for complex behaviors
 Gestalt Cognitive Theory 1920-1950
o Built on the notion that what you see and perceive is not actually so
 See the big, not the pieces
 We act on what we perceive and not what is actually real
o Perceptual organization
 Gestalt Theory – initially just designed to disprove Behavioralism
o Molar vs. Molecular – we don’t see the detail
o
o
o
o
Behavior vs. geographical environment
 What you see and what you are conditioned to see
 We see behavioral environment, not geographical environment
Segregated sensory whole
Dynamic organization of sensory environment
Contrasts
 Based on theories on experimental observations of behavior
 Established laws and principles that were testable
 Applied their principles to real world situations
 Learning is
 Formation of associations between elements (Behaviorists)
 Individuals react to unitary, meaningful wholes, learning is the organization and
reorganization of the sensory field (Gestalt)
 Kohler
o
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
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Replace stimulus-response with a constellation or stimuli-organization reaction to the results of the
organization
 Chicken learning – gray, white paper (gray w/ food) chickens pecked gray. Substitute black for
white paper, chickens peck the black (darker) paper
 Apes (the Insight experience) – couldn’t get to banana.
 Ape reorganized perceptual field to include solution to problem
 Thought to put box under banana first, only then did it
 Apes could use partial insight to solve a problem - Put together box to stand on with
pole to get banana
 Replaced Stimulus-Response with “constellation of stimuli-organization-reaction to the
results of organization”
 These disproved behavioral science!
Werthemeyer
o Arbitrary and meaningful
 Senseless learning (not “useless”)
 Can’t be figured out by patterns, etc. (State capitals)
 could be accomplished through behavioral methods (memorize)
 Meaningful learning
 Can be cognitively determined
 Solve by putting together other known facts
Duncker
o Inventory the problem, situation, and recognizing the ‘lack’
Katona
o Guided discovery (used matchstick puzzles)
o Teach the meaning behind the solution, not just the solution. Teach how and why
o Multiple ways to solve, able to solve new problems more often and easier
Learning: an organization and reorganization of the behavioral field, before making it happen in the geographical field
 Cognitive information processing (1960-1980)
o Everything in CIP model comes from outside
o Only 3 things happen:
 Environments (inputs)
 Behavior (outputs)
 Mediated by “Processing”
o Computer Analogy
 Sensory
 Visual, auditory, tactile, taste, olfactory
 Senses are in the mind, not the fingers, etc.
 Mind determines which sense an input came from
 Sensory memory
 Each sense has a buffer storage area in the brain
 Temporary storage

o Visual data (1/4 second), auditory (4 sec)
 Controlled through attention
 Has limited capacity – shared by all senses
Cognitive Information Processing
 Attention
o Selective attention
 Consciously direct (preselection)
o Automaticity
 Processing activities that are automatic (driving)
 Once in place:
 You can’t keep from doing it
 You can’t stop doing it easily
 You’re not aware you are in automatic mode
 Does not increase the total amount of attention available
 Pattern recognition
o Template matching
 Mental copy is stored in memory (visual representation)
o Prototype
 Stored generalized prototype rather than exact
o Feature analysis
 Store only specific features
 Working memory
o 7 +/- 2 (Miller-1956)
o Chunking
o In your closet, you have 7 +/- 2 hangars. You want to get as much on each
hangar as possible by chunking
 Rehearsal and encoding
o Rehearsal is frequency
 If you interrupt rehearsal before it reaches long term memory, it is
lost
o Encoding is more powerful – attach to other information (hook to a chunk)
 Long-Term Memory
o Unlimited
o Episodic: put yourself back in the scene, and look around the scene
o Semantic: detached from the environment in which it was learned
o In classroom, try to make events that cause memory to be episodic
 Cognitive Theory
 Ausubel
o The model of cognitive organization proposed for the learning and retention of meaningful materials
assumes the existence of a cognitive structure that is hierarchically organized (meaningful learning)
o Everything you know is organized hierarchically
o Active learning – but the activity is in your head
o Learning materials should be well-organized hierarchically
o New ideas must be “potentially meaningful” and should build on earlier structure
o LEARNING is the anchoring of new concepts into existing structure
o Kinds of learning
 Rote
 Learner does it over and over
 Lowest, no connection
 Reception
 Entire content to learn is presented in its final form
 Info and meaning given together
 Discovery
 Rearrange a set of info into an array to create a new desired product
 Meaningful
 most important factor in learning is what you already know
o
o
o
o
 Induction vs. deduction
 Create a new organization, then move content into it
Assimilation theory
 Learning is a process of relating new ideas to old
 Subsumption
o Common and most effective
o Transports large amount of info
o New ideas added to existing info and structure
o Reorganization of existing structure
 Superordinate
o Reorganize known information due to new information
o Place something above something already known
 Combinational
o Better global understanding
o Hardest, reclassifying highest element
Advanced organizers
 Most important thing a teacher can do is develop advanced organizers
 Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, tell them what you told them
 Preconceptions are amazingly tenacious and resistant to extinction
o If they get the scaffold wrong, it’s hard to tear it down and change it
 Anchoring foci for the reception of new material – “scaffolding”
 Deductive (big to little = meaningful)
Application to instruction
 Learning is more than passive listening
 Teacher must present generalizations that govern the meaningfulness of new information
 The purpose of teaching is to strengthen cognitive structures, not amass information
Elements of Ausubel Lesson
 Advance Organizer (opener)
 Progressive Differentiation – generalize first, then move to finer levels of distinction
 Integrative Reconciliation
 Identify the exceptions (duck-billed platypus)
 2 ideas can’t exist in the same place at the same time
 Rummelhart
o Derived from Ausubel’s meaningful learning
o Schema
 A data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory (packets of knowledge)
o Schema are like plays, theories, procedures, and parsers
o Schemata based processing
 Understanding events and guiding actions
 Solving problems
o Acquisition and modification
 Accretion-fact learning
 Tuning-schemata evolve to become more consistent with experience
 Restructuring-creating entirely new schemata which replace or incorporate old ones
 Bruner
o
o
Discovery Learning (Cognitive Constructivism)
 All forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one’s own mind
 Only 1 person is involved in learning
 The student is not a bench bound listener, but is taking a part in the formulation and at times
may play the principal role in it
 Assumes students are critical and inquisitive
 Students go beyond the material into discovery
Principles of Instruction
 Must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to
learn
 Must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student: Find the meaning, then teach it
 Instruction should be designed, sequenced, to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps
o
o
 The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments – find which are effective
 The teacher encourages the student to discover principles by themselves
 Teachers and students discuss issues and concepts – use questions to lead them to learning
 Recursive questioning – Socratic method
 Teachers translate information into appropriate form and sequence for the learners current state
Advantages
 Increase in intellectual potency
 Shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards
 Learning the heuristics of discovery
 Aid to memory processing
 Personalizes the learning experience
Disadvantages
 Potential to confuse the learner if no initial framework is available
 You can’t use this for new material – learners must have a context first
 Much longer to discover something than to be taught (according to Ausubel this is inefficient)
 Piaget
Children are fundamentally different – Ages and Stages
He applied his work to children – shouldn’t try to apply it further
Adults: “when one takes responsibility for learning” Malcolm Knowles
Developmental Stages
 Sensorimotor (0-2)
 touch
 Preoperational (3-7)
 Intelligence is intuitive – mimic adults
 Not hindered by reality
 Concrete Operations (8-12)
 Logic, reference simple math-not algebra
 No concept of possible and impossible
 Can’t think abstractly
 Formal Operations (12-15)
 Abstract thinking
 Ready for algebra
o Principles of Instruction
 Be suited to the child’s developmental stages
 Support the spontaneous research of the child (discovery learning)
 Support the collaboration and interchange among the students
 Social interaction is very important
 Vygotsky (died at age 34 of TB)
o Sociohistorical Theory of Cognitive Development
o All learning is social – can’t happen alone
o Contrasted animal and human behavior, humans have three experiences while animals have one
 Historical experience
 Experience of former generations
 Social experience
 Experiences of others (that you don’t witness)
 Repeated experience
 Repeated: Do it first in your mind, then make it happen in the environment
 Active adaptation to the environment
 Interpretive reconstruction of circumstances
 Animals have passive adaptation (innate or conditioned knowledge only)
 Humans adapt to environment, and also adapt environment
o The theory
 All mental functions appear first on the social plane
 You can’t learn by yourself. First between people, then it is transferred inside
 Zone of proximal development
 The difference between the competencies the student is able to do unassisted and the
competencies the student is on the verge of being able to do (with perfect assistance)
o
o
o
o


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IQ does not determine the length of your zone
Limited to a certain range at any given mental age
Help that is outside your ZPD isn’t help at all
Width of ZPD determined by:
o Child’s innate ability
o Quality of teaching
o Low end is set by Piaget’s theory (brain maturity)
o High end is set by teacher
o Teach to the high end (teach within reach, but beyond grasp – T Murphy)
 Bandura
o
o
o
o
Social Cognitive Theory of Learning
Self Efficacy
Assumptions
 Learning requires both cognitive processing and the decision making skills of the learner
 Learning is a three way interaction among the Environment, Personal factors, and Behavior.
 Learning is acquiring internal codes of behavior that may or may not be performed
Components of Learning (Through Modeling)
 Behavioral models
 Direct: Imitating a model’s behavior
 Symbolic: Imitating behavior displayed by characters in books, plays, movies
 Synthesized: developing behaviors by combining portions of observed acts from Direct
and symbolic models
 Consequences of modeled behavior
 Direct (reinforcement and punishment) – expectations drive behavior, not actual
 Vicarious Consequences
o Reinforcement and punishment others get – most behavior is driven by this
 Self-imposed consequences
 Learners internal processes
 Attention-retention-motivation-reproduction
 Perceived self-efficacy
 Perceived self-efficacy is the learner’s belief in his or her capabilities to successfully
manage situations that may include novel or unpredictable results
 Not just confidence (which is in things you’ve already done)
 Δ P=personal, E=Education, B=Behavior
 Hebb
o
o
o
o
Believed that learning was biological -- neuropsychological method
Nerve cells create clusters in response to stimuli
 Cell assemblies are created where there is reoccurring stimuli
Everything has a biological bases
Does not take into consideration “will” or any spirituality
 Situated Cognition
o Learning to do BY doing to learn (sort of)
o Community of Lived practices
 Individual enters the community and begins to participate
 Legitimate Peripheral Participation
 Individual is altered more than the community (moves toward the center)
 Community is constantly evolving (Center Moves)
 Individuals move from the outside to the center as expertise increases
 Community REQUIRES: Joint enterprise, Shared repertoire, Mutual engagement
o Three levels of learning occurring at the same time:
 Individuals, Communities (groups of Individuals) , organizations (groups of Communities).
 All seek balance.
Oana's questions for the midterm exam
II. Who proposed the model of cognitive organization for learning and retention of meaningful materials?
a) Jean Piaget
c) Robert Gagne
b) David Ausubel
d) Albert Bandura
III. Achievement outcomes have been regarded as a function of skill and will. The focus of Tuckman’s tripartite model of
motivation for achievement is on will. True or false?
Jamie's Midterm Questions
Sent: March 4, 2007 5:17 PM
1. Which of the following is not one of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning?
a. Law of Exercise or Repetition
b. Law of Effect
c. *** Law of Purpose
d. Law of Readiness
2. Who defined discovery learning as “all forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one’s own mind”?
a. Robert Gagne
b. Jean Piaget
c. Lev Vygotsky
d. *** Jerome Bruner
3. False: According to Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory of Learning, “learning” is a three- way interaction among the
Environment, Personal Factors, and Motivation. (should be Behavior, not Motivation)
Kayla's exam questions
Sent: March 4, 2007 7:25 PM
1. Keeping in mind the Zone of Proximal Development, how would you structure your curriculum?
a) Beyond their grasp and beyond their reach.
b) *** Beyond their grasp but within their reach.
c) Within their grasp and within their reach.
d) Curriculum structure has nothing to do with ZPD.
2. According to Watson...
*** Everything is behavior.
Purpose is key to learning.
Thought is key to learning.
Purpose and thought combined form learning.
3. False? What Pavlov called the unconditioned stimulus, Skinner called the elicited response.
1. True or False Regarding Weiner’s Attributional Model of Motivation (effort vs. ability), he states that effort is the
belief that little can be done to control a situation and succeed.
2. Multiple Choice
Which of the following is NOT included in Jean Piaget’s constructivism theory?
The most critical factor in a child’s cognitive development is interaction with peers.
Children are fundamentally different – Ages and Stages.
Humans cannot be “given” information, which they immediately understand and use.
*** The most fruitful experience in a child’s education is his or her collaboration with more skilled partners.
3. Multiple Choice
Educational Applications of Concept Mapping include:
Mapping a learning route.
Planning a paper, presentation, exposition, etc.
Extracting meaning from laboratory, studio, and/or field studies and experiences.
*** All of the above.
Subject: Will's Questions Sent: March 5, 2007 2:25 PM
1)An advantage to discovery learning is it can be used when the learner has no prior information about the subject. False
2)A schematic device for representing a set of concept meanings embedded in a framework of propositions is a(n):
A) objective matrix
B) meaningful map
*** C) concept map
D) black box
3)The assumptions that people in an organization dislike work, avoid responsibility, and prefer to be directed would be
McGregor’s:
A)Theory Y
*** B)Theory X
C)Avoidance Theory
D)Acceptance Theory
1. Which of the following is not one of the 5 steps of Herbartian learning?
Prepare
*** Assumption
Generalize
Comparison
2. False Something that we see visually stays in our short term memory longer than something that is heard.
3. Which of the following is a source of knowledge?
a) Folklore and Wisdom
b) Empirical Research
c) Organized beliefs (myths, philosophy)
d) *** All of the above
1. T F Proponents of Situated Cognition generally believe that learning should be detached, or studied separately, from
the context within which it occurs. (FALSE)
2. Which of the following is NOT a stage in Piaget’s “Ages and Stages” theory of development?
a) Sensorimotor
b) *** Relational Operations
c) Concrete Operations
d) Formal Operations
ANSWER: b)
3) Under Hebb’s biological-neurological theory of learning:
a)
b)
c)
d)
*** when stimuli occur, the nerves cells will cluster together and form assemblies.
behavioral theories are more closely related to the physical way that learning occurs than cognitive theories are.
the learner’s “Will” can have a significant effect on how the brain connects nerve bundles.
the community of lived practices physically moves in the brain to build “cell assemblies.”
ANSWER: a)
Jessica Pustka
False: 1.According to the Thorndike’s Law of Effect, a response is weakened if it results in pleasure and strengthened if it
results in pain.
2.According to Cognitive Information Processing, which is not an example of Pattern Recognition?
a. Template matching
b. *** Automaticity
c. Prototype
d. Feature Analysis
3.In which of Piaget’s Developmental Stages is the child likely to produce a concrete answer that is likely to be wrong.
a. Sensorimotor
b. Preoperational
c. Concrete
d. Formal
1. According to Ausubel what are four types of learning?
a) *** rote, reception, discovery and meaningful
b) rote, discovery, assimilation and meaningful
c) rote, reception, discovery and accomodation
2. false: According to Bandera's model a student can enter a P.E. class and his behavior will not change from his reading
class.
3. In operant conditioning what are the two principles?
A) Consequence and reward
B) Shaping and chaining
C) *** variation and selection by consequence
What is a limited commodity that is shared through all 5 senses?
a. ATTENTION
“Chunking” would allow a person to remember all of these amounts of information except for
d. 11
In Jean Piaget’s developmental stages, the “formal operations” stage occurs between the ages of 5-7.
False: Occurs in 12-15
Miguel
1. The three components of learning through modeling by Bandura are:
A. *** Direct, Symbolic, Synthesized
B Direct, Transference, Synthesized
C Physical, Emotional, Cultural
D. None of the Above
Correct Answer: A
2. True Hebb believed that learning was a biological-neuropsychological method
Correct Answer True
3. Communities of Practice contain three elements which form a triangle
they are:
A. *** Mutual Engagement, Joint Enterprise, Shared Repertoire B. Community Partnerships, Collaboration, Shared
Resources C. Advisory Commitees, Shared Resources, Cultural Awareness
D. All the Above
Correct Answer: A