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Learning Students to complete writing on reading activity Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Can occur intentionally or unintentionally. Learning can refer to a change in behaiviour potential as well as actual action – we know stuff but don’t use it. Go through OH’s and Handouts, Read Pg. 425 Is learning separate or distinct from memory? NO CAN’T HAVE ONE WITHOUT THE OTHER – Ability to learn separates us from the animals! BEHAVIOUR THAT IS NOT DEPENDENT ON LEARNING BEHAVIOURS THAT DON’T REQUIRE PAST EXPERIENCE!!! Read as a class Pg. 426 - 428 REFLEX ACTIONS Automatic or involuntary responses, which do not require prior experience (e.g. Withdrawing hand from hot object, blinking when smoke enters eyes). Handouts on behaviour that is not learning 2 minute warm up - observing a reflex response (Blink eye to wind, knee jerk) FIXED ACTION PATTERNS Inborn predisposition for organisms to behave in certain ways when appropriately stimulated. Inherited behaviour of a species - instinctive or species specific behaviour, e.g. A young herring gull with peck at a red spot on its mother's beak when hungry. BEHAVIOUR DEPENDENT ON MATURATION Depends primarily on the development of the body and structures of the nervous system, e.g. Most children begin walking at approx. 12-14 months & are toilet trained between 18-30 months. Can’t learn it before this no matter how much practice. EG. Puberty voice change. Students to complete L.A. 1 & L.A. 2 Psych book activity 1 Pg. 161 How is Learning Measured Read as a class BOX 1 – learning measured by performance Observation of performance under experimental condition, e.g. it is not possible to see learning taking place as you read a book, a test of your recall of the material is some measure of learning that took place. Note shape of curve (slow at start) all have experienced this. Measurement of a performance can be measured on a Learning Curve. Read through BOX 2 pg. 297. Can you learn during sleep? E.g. Homer and his tapes What is the simplest form of learning that is even below our awareness? Read BOX 2. Habituation - the simplest kind of learning Multiple choice questions CLASSICAL CONDITIONING A simple form of learning, which occurs through repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli. Learning is said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously elicit. Learn to associate two events, stimuli, eventually, one stands for the other in our minds. Read as a class Pg. 435 - 436 Give handouts on CC Read Pg 437 - 438 a class go through parts on board – students copy figure 12.4 In CC a response that is automatically produced by one stimulus becomes associated or linked with another stimulus. A simple form of learning that occurs as a result repeated association of two or more stimuli. One of the two stimuli would normally elicit a reflexive involuntary or automatic response - The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - as it doesn't need to be conditioned in order to elicit the involuntary response - The Unconditioned Response (UCR). Learning occurs when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce. Feeding your pets at home Go through Pavlov’s dogs experiment on the board. UCS – food Food paired with bell UCR - salivation during conditioning. NS– Bell After conditioning bell CS –Bell takes place of food CR – salivation causing salivation The Main Elements of Classical Conditioning The Neutral Stimulus (NS) - the name given to the conditioned stimulus before it becomes conditioned. In Pavlov's experiment NS = Bell or Lab technician etc… The Condoned Stimulus (CS) - the stimulus which is neutral at the start of conditioning. It wouldn't normally produce the Unconditioned response (UCR), but does so eventually because of its association with the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular response. In Pavlov's Exp. UCS = food. The Unconditioned Response (UCR) - A response which occurs automatically when the Unconditioned Stimulus is presented. In Pavlov's experiment. UCR = Salivation. The Continued Response (CR) - the behaviour which is identical to the UCR but is caused by the CS after conditioning. In Pavlov's expt. CR = Salivation in response to the Bell (CS). Pavlov’s Study BEFORE CONDITIONING Neutral stimulus (Bell) Unconditioned stimulus (Food) No response Unconditioned response (salivation) DURING CONDITIONING Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned (Bell) (Food) response (salivation) Repeated pairings of these two stimuli AFTER CONDITIONING Conditioned stimulus (Bell) Conditioned response (Salivation) Discuss other examples of CC – cat and sound of can opener, dog and the lead Do one of the examples from L.A 3 as a class – students go through the rest and then check answers as a class Students to complete L.A. 2 Psych book activity 2 Pg. 162 Skim 441 – 443 Acquisition: the organism learns to associate the two events, for this to occur there are some important– factors to consider Extinction the gradual decrease in the strength or frequency of a response that has been conditioned when the UCS is no longer presented Association Association of two stimuli is the most important part of CC. Without this the UCS would Spontaneous - The reappearance of thememory. CR when the CS is presented not become linked Recovery to the CS in an organism's Long-term again after a rest period. This does not always occur Timing of stimulus presentation UCS must be delivered shortly after the (NS) CS for the association to be made Stimulus Discrimination – Subject responds (shows the CR) only to the CS not other similar stimuli Stimulus Generalization – Tendency for other stimulus (similar to the CS) to elicit a response that is similar to the CR Students to copy figure 12.6 into notes –discuss as a class Students to complete L.A 4, 5, 6 Students to complete Classical Conditioning worksheet Show Pavlov video Other Important Elements in Classical Conditioning Look at Box 1 – other important factors Association Association of two stimuli is the most important part of CC. Without this the UCS would not become linked to the CS in an organism's Long-term memory. Frequency and timing of stimulus presentation How often the UCS and CS are linked is an important factor in establishing the connection between two stimuli in CC. Nature of the response In CC the UCR must initially be an automatic or involuntary response, such as a reflex response. The salivation that resulted from the smell or stage of food was a reflexive response over which a dog had no control. Read as a class Pg.446. Classically Conditioned Behaviour Conditioned reflex – automatic response that occurs as a result of previous experience. Involves little conscious thought. EG. Hitting the brakes when you see a red light, getting up to answer the phone etc. (CC in real life) Do examples of conditioned reflexes – stopping at red light, going quiet in cinema when lights go dim Psych book activity 3 Pg. 163 Read as a class Pg. 446 - 450 how fears are learned – Watson’s Little Albert Conditioned Emotional Response – Emotional reaction when the ANS produces a response to stimulus that it did not previously trigger that response. Go through Little Albert example on board Look at Box 2 – CC used to alleviate phobia Students to complete L.A 7, 8 Students to also complete Little Albert worksheet, Psych book activity 4 Pg. 164 Phobias Intense, irrational and persistent fears of specific objects of situations. Phobias complex instances of conditioned emotional responses, e.g. A person may develop a fear of birds from being pecked by a pet duck in early childhood. Whilst no injury was sustained intense fear was present at the time and it becomes deeply entrenched with the presence of birds - any birds (CS) which produce fear (CR). Avoidance Behaviour reinforces the phobia – avoid fear = good feeling = reinforced Look at Phobias list - do street and birds examples as a class Classical Conditioning in Practice Skim as a class 451 - 452 Aversion Therapy Aversion is a complete dislike for something. Aversion therapy is a form of behaviour therapy that applies classical conditioning principles to reduce or stop unwanted behaviour by associating it with unpleasant stimulus. E.g. Drugs (UCS) paired with alcohol (CS) consumption to make alcoholic feel nauseous (UCR) - (CR). See research by Garcia & Koelling (1966) Text p. 340 Show clockwork orange Read as a class 452 – 452 systematic desensitization, students to read about treatment of bed wetting using Classical Conditioning. Systematic Desensitization Attempts to replace fear response with relaxation, patient taught relaxation techniques and then gradually introduced to fear inducing stimulus while practicing relaxation. Students to complete Psych book activity 4 Pg. 156 L.A 9 Students to read Pg. 454 – 456, also Pg. 48 – 50 (chapter 1) – ethics and conditioning Discuss as a class ethical issues arising from A Clockwork Orange Students to complete L.A 10 – use clockwork orange as their example Read as a class 457 - 458 One Trial Learning A particular type of learning that involves a change in behaviour as a result of just one trial or event. It is generally a conditioned physical response that is Classically Conditioned & is extremely resistant to Extinction. Taste Aversion – the Garcia effect A learned response in which the organism associates a particular taste (of some sort of food) (CS) with the negative experience of that food (UCS) that made them feel sick (UCR) e.g. If you were to become violently ill the first time you tried oysters the association between oysters and feeling sick will be made immediately and an aversion for oysters will occur Note that text refers to the feeling sick as the UCS; it should be the negative experience with that food cancer patients (UCS) that causes the (UCR) of feeling sick. Look at Box 3 – taste aversions in Students to complete L.A. 11, 12, LA 13 – Table of Similarities and Diff’s b/t classical conditioning and one trial learning. Multiple choice Q’s Note the use of CC in advertising everywhere – E.g. UCS – happy scene UCR – happy feelings in viewer, NS – product, CS – product, CR – happy positive feelings towards product Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning OC worksheet as an intro – behaviour and consequences OH & handouts A learning process by which the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the consequences of that behaviour. Theory of Operant Conditioning - Behaviour operates on the environment and our behaviour is instrumental in producing the consequences - Rewards/Punishments. Read as a class Pg. 463 - 464 Show Thorndike video - instrumental Edward Thorndike’s (1874 – 1949) experiments with cats. Read Pg 466 – 468 – show Skinner American Psychologist, B.F Skinner (1904 Video – 1990)- operant believed behaviour can be Handout on skinner box reduced to the relationships between the behaviour, its antecedents (the events that precede it), and its consequences. Operant - a response (or set or responses) that occurs in the absence of any stimulus and acts upon the environment in the same way each time Students to complete L.A 1 & 2 Distinguishing between CC and OC sheet Elements of Operant Conditioning Read as a class Pg. 470 - 471 Reinforcement Any stimulus (event or action) that subsequently strengthens or increases the likelihood of the response (behaviour) that it follows. The stimulus = The reinforcer The reinforcer comes after the response (behaviour) In CC the reinforcer (UCS) comes before the response (behaviour) Schedules of reinforcement As a class look at Box 2 Handouts on schedules Go through on OH Fixed ratio – Behaviour reinforced after a fixed number of desired responses have been made i.e. working for commission paid after a set number of sales Variable ratio – Reinforcement made after a variable number of correct responses, i.e. poker machine payouts Fixed interval – Reinforcer delivered after a fixed time period provided the correct response has be made Variable Interval – Reinforcement given after irregular or variable periods of time, provided the correct response has been made i.e. going fishing Students to complete handout Old Psych Book activity 6 (pink sheet) Read as a class Pg. 373 - 374 Negative Reinforcer Positive Reinforcer A stimulus strengthens a response by the reduction, or prevention of A stimulus whichthat strengthens a response by providing a pleasantremoval or satisfying an unpleasant stimulus i.e. The behaviour that removes reduces or prevents and consequence, e.g. Skinner's expt. + the reinforcer = food pellets. unpleasant stimulus is strengthened by the consequence. E.g. Skinners Expt. - sometimes the grill on the floor of the box was electrified. The rat could stop the current by pressing the lever, which it did more frequently. The lever = the negative reinforcer which removed the unpleasant stimulus of the electrical current. Make a maze, lead someone through it with reinforcement clapping as Positive, Bad music (the removal of bad music) as Negative Psych book activity 5 Pg. 166– go through answers as class Students to complete L.A 3, 4 Read as a class Pg. Punishment - the delivery of a punisher following an undesirable response. Punisher – an unpleasant stimulus that when paired with a response weakens the response or decreases the rate of responding over time. Punishers reduce unwanted behaviour It is usually more effective to reinforce alternative desirable behaviour than it is to punish undesirable behaviour Students to complete L.A. 5, 6, 7 Factors that influence effectiveness of reinforcement Skim Pg. 476 Order of presentation – reinforcement needs to occur after the desired response not before! So the organism associates the reinforcement with the behaviour Timing – Reinforcers need to occur as close in time to the desired response as possible. Most effective reinforcement occurs immediately after the desired response Appropriateness of the reinforcer – For a stimulus to be a reinforcer it must provide a pleasing or satisfying consequence for its recipient. Look at Box 3 – escape and avoidance conditioning – punishment doesn’t teach us the right thing it simply makes us avoid the negative consequence! Look at Box 4 – Learned Helplessness Students to complete OC worksheet Key Processes in Operant Conditioning Skim Pg. 482 Acquisition – establishment of the response through reinforcement Shaping – a strategy in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response Do the shaping of behaviour activity on students from the class. Reinforcement in the form of “good” side of sign shown when something is done right or the person is close to doing something right (each member of class holds up a sigh, one side for good actions one for bad. Dog shaping in class – shape dogs behaviour to run around class in a circle Extinction – the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of responding after a period Chaining – in this procedure theoccurs bits ofafter behaviour in the final response are of non- reinforcement. Extinction the termination of desired reinforcement shaped backwards from the order in which they are to be performed, the final response being reinforced first. Spontaneous recovery – the response is (after a rest period) again shown in the absence of reinforcement Stimulus generalization – occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus which is similar to the stimulus for which reinforcement is obtained Stimulus discrimination - organism makes response to a stimulus for which reinforcement is obtained but not for any other similar stimulus Look at Box 5 – a real life Mojo the Monkey Do Operant conditioning in practice positive reinforce (lollies) Punishment (bad music) negative reinforcement (nagging) Students to complete L.A 10 Psych book activity 7 Pg. 169 Look at Box 6 – Behaviour modification using OC Behaviour Modification – systematic application of learning principals to change a person’s behaviour Token economies – individual receives reinforcement in the form of tokens that can be cashed in for real rewards Give handouts summing up OC Vs CC Students to Read 488 – 489 in preparation for SAC Students to complete L.A 12 – go through answers Multiple choice questions Sum up similarities and differences between CC and OC using examples on the board SAC 2 CC Vs OC Observation and Insight Learning Handout questions students to work through as we cover relevant sections. Read as a class Pg. 493 The process of observational learning Observational learning occurs when someone uses observation of another person's actions and their consequences to guide their future actions. Because the person is being observed is referred to as a model, observational learning is often called modeling. This is not to say that every time we watch someone do something we learn how to do it. Observational learning is a more active process than either classical or operant conditioning, although it is not entirely different from conditioning. Discuss vicarious reinforcement and punishment – judge makes an example Students to complete L.A 1 & 2 Read about Bobo Doll experiment Bandura – Pg. 495 - 497 NOTE: Latent learning – just because don’t do it doesn’t mean its not learned Bobo Doll – Model reinforced – more copied aggressive behaviour Model Punished – Less copied aggressive behaviour Model no consequence – More copies aggressive behaviour Latent learning occurs in the absence of any direct reinforcement and remains hidden until it is However whenlearning child offered all conditions aggressive behaviour copied – required. Much latent occursreward throughin observational learning. Latent learningwas - that is, learning shows learning - just because don’t show it doesn’t that occurs, butlatent remains unexpressed, until reinforcement is given.mean it’s not learned Skim as a class Pg. 499 - 501 Elements of observational learning: - the role of the leaner The learner plays an active role in the learning process. They must: a) Pay attention in order to observe the modeled behaviour. Attention may be influenced by numerous factors, (e.g. the motivation and interest level of the observer, or the personality characteristics of the model). Avoidance of distracters is therefore vitally important to observational learning. b) Mentally represent and retain what has been observed. Responses learned by modeling are often not needed until some time after they have been acquired. Therefore, memory plays an active role in observational learning. There is a need to make'~ mental representation of what you have observed, and the more, meaningful you can make that image, ~e more accurately you will be able to replicate the behaviour when necessary. c) Convert these mental representations into actions (i.e. reproduce them) (our ability to reproduce the modeled response may be restricted by physical ' limitations. d) Be aware that reinforcement influences motivation to perform the learned behaviour: Unless the behavioural response provides a reward for you, it is unlikely that you will want to learn it. 'The last of these four basic processes therefore involves incentives or reinforcement - the key link between observational learning and conditioning. Copy figure 14.12 into books Students to complete L.A 4, 6 Read as a class article on Pg. 504 – TV violence Read as a class Pg 504 – 506 Go over Observational learning and the stages of observational learning – Bandura’s Bobo Doll Learning set is the improvement in one's ability to learn which results from prior experience in a similar learning situation. Learning how to learn. Also involves cognition not just stimulus response. Learn a rule of what to do this those types of problems. Link between stimulus response and cognition. Learn the rules through trial and error but once have them can apply them elsewhere. Harlows monkeys – learnt a rule – they developed a learning set making them better equipped to deal with similar problems in the future Look at Box 2 – transfer of learning Harlow: Insight (cognition or thinking) and trial and error not separate but linked. Insight requires Students to complete L.A 10, 11 past experience. at Box – insight learning Kohler the and other end of the scalerules fromthrough trial Learning setLook explains the 3relation between past–experience cognition. Learn skinner, between which Harlow created a link and error & apply them later. Insight is the result of cumulative learning – REORGANISATION OF ELEMENTS OF A Insight learning PROBLEM Learning which involves a period of mental manipulation of information which is connected with a problem, before the sudden realisation of a solution Kohler: Insight learning is due to cognition; no past experience required (Kohler was criticized for not taking past experience of chimps into account) The main outcomes of insight learning are 1. 2. 3. 4. learning seems to be sudden and complete Performance of the solution is usually done with no errors The solution is less likely to be forgotten than if it had been learned by rote The principle underlying the solution is easily applied to other relevant problem solving situations. Read as a class Pg. 393 – features and criticisms (refer to OH as summary) Stages of insightful Learning – cognitive processes not just stimulus response, appears to happen without prior experience (go through on overhead) Preparation is the first stage of insight learning, when the person or animal gathers as much information as possible. One way this occurs is by attempting to use the information available. lncubation is a period of mental "time out" during which the information gained during the preparation stage appears to be put aside. However, at an unconscious level, the information continues to be processed. – Cognition takes place The insightful experience is sometimes referred to as the "ah-ha” experience because it occurs so suddenly that people often exclaim "ah-ha!" when they suddenly realize the solution. Perceive a relationship between different parts of the problem to construct a meaningful whole. Verification represents the last stage of insight learning, when the visual image that flashed into the mind during the insightful experience is acted upon with overt behaviour. Suggested that need past experience with the elements of the problem for insight to take place. Multiple choice questions Skinner – learning just behaviour and response OC Kohler – learning just cognitive (in the mind) Harlow – Cognitive learning (insight) is a result of accumulated experience, can’t have insight without past experience