Download Grammar Lecture Notes: Pronouns and Clauses

ENGALX Campus
Spring 2010
Anna Linzie
Lecture 6
Pronouns, CLAUSES and CLAUSE
ELEMENTS, Sentence analysis
Pronouns
A pronoun…
1. resembles a noun in the sense that it also refers to people, things, ideas and so on
2. often replaces a noun phrase and makes language less repetitive
3. can also be used for pointing something out, referring back, questioning, expressing
quantity, exclamations and so on
4. can be the head of a noun phrase or the determiner in a noun phrase
5. can be personal, reflexive, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative,
exclamatory, quantifying or reciprocal
6. sometimes looks different in the subject and object functions (he-him, who-whom)
Personal pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a noun phrase that is familiar (mentioned before or obvious
from the context). Subject and object forms: I-me, you-you, he-him, she-her, it-it, we-us, youyou, they-them.
Remember to use the correct form of the personal pronoun to refer to a noun that has a
different number in English than it has in Swedish. Uncountables are always singular and
have to be referred to by it, whereas plural invariable nouns have to be referred to by
they/them.
In Swedish, we sometimes use “det” instead of he/she/they, but in English he/she/they is
always used for “han/hon/det” (“det verkar vara en trevlig kille” – he seems like a nice guy).
To refer back to collective nouns, the plural pronoun they is often used instead of it,
especially in spoken language. The government has been debating this bill, but they decided
to turn it down.
Some people consider it incorrect to use the object form of the personal pronouns after than
and as, but these forms are very frequent and generally accepted nowadays: My brother is
taller than him (instead of: than he is). A structure like taller than I (without a following
verb) is a case of “hypercorrection”.
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When the pronoun functions as a subject, the object form is not generally accepted: *You and
me were meant to be.
Compare differences in meaning: I like her more than he /does/. I like her more than him.
One difficulty for Swedish learners of English is the use of personal pronouns in object forms
after English prepositions used in place adverbials. Swedish uses a reflexive pronoun (“sig”)
rather than an object pronoun (“henne”). In some abstract expressions, English uses a
reflexive pronoun as well: They agreed among themselves.
After some verbs (believe, expect, guess, hope, say, suppose, tell, think) and after be afraid,
so is used instead of it. I think so. I am afraid so.
So can also be used to mean “det… också”. The word order differs depending on which word
we wish to put focus on. He turned his head away and so did you. (emphasis on you) He told
you to turn around and so you did. (emphasis on did)
In negative statements, neither or nor is used instead of so: She is not a staff member and
neither is he. Clearly, you didn't know, and nor did you understand.
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject carrying out the action in a clause. It is formed
by adding –self to a singular personal pronoun and –selves to a plural personal pronoun. The
impersonal reflexive pronoun oneself is used together with one (“man”) when you do not
refer to a particular person.
Reflexive pronouns have three functions:
1. They can make a verb reflexive (defend oneself) (corresponds to Swedish
“mig/dig/sig”)
2. They can occur after a preposition in certain expressions (be all by oneself, speak for
oneself) (corresponds to Swedish “mig/dig/sig själv”)
3. They are used for emphasis, pointing out that one does something on one’s own (I
solved the problem myself) (corresponds to Swedish “själv”)
Note 1: Some verbs are reflexive in Swedish but not in English (“uppföra sig” – behave1).
Note 2: Swedish and English usage differs after a preposition where Swedish has a reflexive
pronoun and English a personal one. She suddenly turned in disbelief and saw the obstacle
behind her. (“bakom sig”)
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are typically concerned with some sort of ownership. There are two
types, dependent possessive pronouns (determiners in a noun phrase, my dog) and
independent possessive pronouns (heads of noun phrases functioning as predicatives, the
dog is mine).
1
Behave is reflexive when you tell someone else to behave: Behave yourself please!
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Remember! Do not mix up the possessive pronouns its and theirs with two contracted verb
forms, it’s (it is/has) and there’s (there is/has)! The inline DIV is now emptied after the
window has fetched its contents. It’s a far-fetched scenario.
The adjective own is used with possessive pronouns in English, but this is often missing or
corresponds to the indefinite article in Swedish. He would soon use that experience for his
own project. (“… i ett eget projekt”)
With collective nouns such as family and government, the plural pronoun their is often used
instead of its: Her family found their way back to the hotel safely.
Note: English uses a determiner + noun + and + pronoun construction: I think I have found a
solution to your problems and mine. Swedish uses a determiner + ”och” + determiner + noun
construction: Jag har lösningen på dina och mina problem. (Also: It is considered impolite to
mention yourself first in English.)
Possessive pronouns with words for body parts etc In English, a possessive pronoun is
used in active clauses when we talk about what somebody does with his or her life, body,
mind, clothes, personal belongings and so on, whereas in Swedish the definite form of the
noun is used instead. But she carried on like a real pro: she quickly regained her balance and
went on with the show. (“återfick balansen”) Plural: Two men were charged with burglary
after police said they were caught with stolen jewelry stuffed in their pockets. (“i fickorna”)
Exception: A few set phrases have the definite article instead of a possessive pronoun (turn
red/white in the face, have something on the brain): She seems to have fashion on the brain.
Note: If the clause is passive or if the “owner” is the object of the clause, the definite article
is used in English as well. A fight ensued and at least one flight attendant was hit on the arm.
He kissed her on the forehead and said goodbye.
Demonstrative pronouns
There are four demonstrative pronouns in English, two in the singular –this and that – and
two in the plural – these and those. A demonstrative can be used both as a determiner and as
the head of a noun phrase. Those books are yours. Those are my books. The function of a
demonstrative is to point to something close (this/these) or further away (that/those).
Swedish can use a singular demonstrative pronoun (“det här”) to refer to a plural noun phrase
in the predicative function, but English must use a plural pronoun: These are the rules I live
by. “Det här är reglerna…”
Uses of demonstrative pronouns in informal English: I met this fascinating person at the
party. (introduces something new) Why don’t you introduce me to this new girlfriend of
yours? (positive) That new boyfriend of yours seems to mistreat you. (negative)
This and that can also be adverbs in certain informal expressions: Is it really that bad?
Interrogative pronouns
There are two main question structures in English. One is the yes/no-question, which is
introduced by an auxiliary. For the other type of question (wh-question), we use either an
interrogative pronoun or an interrogative adverb (when, where, how). There are five
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interrogative pronouns in English: who, whom, whose, which and what. Interrogative
pronouns can be used both in direct and indirect questions.
Which, what and whose can be determiners of noun phrase heads (whose car is it?) or noun
phrase heads themselves (whose is this car?). Who/whom can only function as the head of a
noun phrase.
Who, what and which
Who is only used to refer to people, whereas what is mainly used about things and abstract
entities.
Do not mix up what and how in phrases like the following, where what is used about a
permanent quality and how refers to something more temporary. What is she like? (always)
How is she? (how is she feeling, right now)
Which is used about both human beings and things, but only when the number of possible
referents is limited, when we have a choice of some kind. Which alternative would lead to the
best overall consequences?
Which is used when we have a limited set of items to choose from (mentioned or understood).
What is used when there is an open choice without limits. Swedish learners of English tend to
forget this because Swedish uses “vilken” in both cases.
Who, whom and whose
Who is used when the person we ask about is the subject of the clause, whereas whom is used
when the person is the object of the clause and especially after a preposition: From whom did
you purchase the software? This is a formal structure. In more informal contexts, the
preposition tends to come at the end of the sentence: Who(m) did you buy it from?
Whose is the genitive form of who. Note: Take care not to mix up whose with who’s, which is
the contracted form of who is/has.
Relative pronouns and relative clauses
There are six relative pronouns in English: who, whom, whose, which, that and what. A
relative pronoun is used to link a so-called relative clause to the head of a noun phrase or, in
some cases, to a whole clause. The word (or words) that a relative pronoun refers back to is
called the antecedent (korrelat). The antecedent of a relative clause can be the head word of
any other sentence constituent except the predicate, but is typically a noun. A relative clause
always functions as a modifier (a modifier consisting of a clause = “satsattribut”):
mod/clause.
Apart from a clause introduced by a relative pronoun, a relative clause can also be…
… a dependent clause introduced by one of the relative adverbs how, when, where or
why (after reason): Your blog is a place where you can create a new identity. This is
the reason why we bought a house in this area.
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… a dependent clause introduced by an –ing form or past participle (can be seen as a
reduced clause, where a relative pronoun has been omitted): I want that dress [which
is] hanging in your closet. I was wearing a dress [which I had] bought in London.
→Examples
Have you seen the book that I left here?
the book antecedent and Od; that rel pron and Od
The book which sat on the shelf disappeared.
the book antecedent and subj; which rel pron and subj
This is the boy whose book was stolen.
the boy antecedent and pr/s; whose rel pron and mod/gen
The building where the library was has been turned into a museum.
the building antecedent and subject; where rel adv and advl/place
They decided to meet at the library, where they went by bike.
the library antecedent and (together with at) advl/place; where rel adv and advl/place
→Who, which, whom
One of the pronouns who and which is used, depending on the antecedent (the word that is
referred back to).
♦Who refers back to people, many animals (pets), and sometimes collective nouns such as
family (informal, spoken)
♦Which refers back to antecedents that are not people or pets, things and abstract entities, or
to an entire clause or verb phrase
Who is used when the relative pronoun functions as the subject in the relative clause.
Whom is used when the relative pronoun functions as the object in the relative clause or as a
prepositional complement.
I need a friend who shares my values.
The girl whom all the children liked went on to become a dentist. (formal)
The friend to whom I wrote these letters never came back.
NB: The choice between who and whom is only related to the grammatical function (subject
or object) of the relative pronoun in the relative clause. It has nothing to do with the
grammatical function of the antecedent (the noun phrase it refers back to).
A relative pronoun can also refer back to a whole clause or part of a clause (such as a toinfinitive or an adjective), not just to the head of a noun phrase. In such cases, which is the
only possible alternative, and always with a singular verb form:
She was late again, which really annoyed me. (which refers to the whole clause)
She asked him to hurry up, which he did. (which refers to the infinitive to hurry up)
He suspected that she was angry, which she was. (which refers to the adjective angry)
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→That and the zero relative
That can be used instead of who and which to refer back to both people and other things, and
in both subject function and object function.
There is a difference, however, depending on whether the relative clause is necessary
(restrictive) or not. When the relative clause is restrictive, all three relative pronouns can be
used. When the relative clause is non-restrictive, neither that nor the zero pronoun can be
used.
1. A restrictive relative clause provides information that is necessary to identify the
head of the noun phrase = it restricts the possible number of people or things that the
clause can refer to.
2. A non-restrictive relative clause provides extra information which is not necessary
to identify the head of the noun phrase = it does not restrict the possible number of
people or things that the clause can refer to.
A non-restrictive relative clause is usually marked by commas or dashes, whereas there are
no such commas or dashes around a restrictive relative clause. The accountant who/that went
to the bank never came back. (Necessary or we would not know which accountant that is
referred to) The accountant, who was quite handsome, was on his way to the bank. (Not
necessary – note the commas!)
After certain words (all, few, little, much, only, superlatives and words in any-, every- and no), that is preferred to which:
All that she wants is a room of her own.
The most important question that we need to consider has not been mentioned yet.
When the relative pronoun functions as the object of a clause, it is often left out in informal
language (especially after superlatives):
The man [that/who/whom] I met on the road was wearing a nice hat.
She wrote the best proposal [that] they had ever seen.
→Whose and of which/whom
Whose as a relative pronoun in the genitive can be used to refer to all kinds of noun phrase
head, not just people. In formal writing, of which is often preferred to whose when we talk
about things and abstract entities. This construction is also used with pronouns like all, half,
many, most and some, numerals and expressions like the majority of and part of.
It was written by a man whose family was destroyed by the war.
The book, whose contents are available online…
The book, the contents of which…
I read the book, part of which consists of interviews with survivors…
→What
What is different from who and which in that it does not have an antecedent to refer back to.
It corresponds to Swedish vad som or det som.
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What really matters is that you are here now.
An alternative construction is that which, but this is much less frequent.
Exclamatory pronouns
What is the most frequent exclamatory pronoun. Such can also be used in exclamations
(especially in American English). The indefinite article comes after the pronoun in English
and before it in Swedish: What an amazing view! (“En sådan fantastisk utsikt!”)
Note 1: Uncountable nouns in English never take the indefinite article. What beautiful
weather! (“Ett sådant/vilket vackert väder!”)
Note 2: Observe the difference between exclamatory what and interrogative what: What a
great idea! (exclamatory – indefinite article) What great idea can you offer your company?
(interrogative – no article)
Quantifying (or indefinite) pronouns
This is the biggest and most diverse pronoun group. Most of them have in common that they
relate to quantity of some kind. Many of them can function either as determiners of noun
phrases or as noun phrase heads themselves. Some animals are one-celled, some consist of
millions of cells. Many of them can also be used before an of-phrase: Some of them are old.
Some, any, no and their compounds
Some is used in affirmative clauses and any is used in negative and interrogative clauses. (A
negative clause does not have to include the word not.) Another way of putting it is to say
that some is used to refer to something that can be expected to exist, whereas any does not
indicate that the speaker/writer has such knowledge. Some is used in questions when you
expect a positive answer. It is the more polite form to use when you ask for something and
when you make an offer. Can I have some more? Would you like some cake? Some can also
be used in negative clauses: I do not subscribe to some of his political views. Compare: I do
not subscribe to any of his political views. (“några alls”) The difference between some and
any can also be described as a distinction between limited reference (some) and unlimited
reference (any). This is why any can be used in affirmative clauses to indicate an open choice
(“vad/vem/vilken som helst”): Any of them would do. Any can also mean “if there is/are any
X” and “whatever X there is/are”: Any delays will likely worsen growth prospects.
A problem for Swedish learners of English is to translate Swedish “någon” before nouns in
negative and interrogative sentences. In English, some/any can only be used before an
uncountable or a plural countable noun, whereas the indefinite article is used before a
singular countable noun. Have you got any money? Do you have a car?
Exceptions. Any is used with countables in the singular when there is strong emphasis on the
pronoun: Did you have any idea she was pregnant? Some can be used before a singular
countable noun in informal English to express enthusiasm: If you pay in the maximum amount
of £3000 you will get a massive £1000 free – now that is some bonus!
Note: Any and some can also be adverbs, modifying adjectives and adverbs in the
comparative form. Can I have some more water before we go any further?
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No
There are two similar negative constructions in English, one with no and one with not a/any,
the former putting more focus on the negation. Note: No can also be an adverb, modifying an
adjective: He is no different from other men. In a question or negative clause including a
comparative adjective like more or longer, no or not any must be used (rather than not).
Compounds with some, any and no
Some, any and no can be included in compound pronouns (something) and adverbs (anyhow).
No one is usually written as two words, but all the others are written as one word. The form
none is mainly used before of. Apart from the contracted form none, compound pronouns
cannot usually be used before of (compare Swedish “någon av”).
When none of comes before a plural noun it is possible to use either a singular or a plural
verb form. Remember: Anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no one and nobody are
followed by a singular verb form.
Note: The –body words are more frequent in American English and informal language, and
the –one words are more frequent in British English and formal language.
Anyone who refers generically to any person.
Either and neither
Either and neither are only used when you talk about two items and can be used with or
without of. If there are more than two, any and none are used instead. In informal language,
neither is often followed by a plural verb form, whereas in more formal language a singular
verb form is used. A plural verb form is usually accepted with none (which can refer to
several people).
All, whole, both and half
All without the definite article is mainly used in a generic sense, not referring to something
specific.
Both half and a half works, the latter is more frequent in American English.
You can say both dogs (most frequent), both the dogs and both of the dogs. The simple form
both is the only alternative when you refer to something that can only be two: both twins.
There is a difference between both /the/ and the two. The first expression is used to stress that
we are talking about both and not just one.
When you talk about time, you can use either all or whole. All is more frequent when the
noun phrase functions as an adverbial (usually no article is used with all), whereas whole is
more frequent when the noun phrase has another function. I have been working all day. The
whole day has been an uphill struggle - why do some companies put so much effort into being
unhelpful?
When you talk about places, you can use all, all of or the whole of. All is more frequent when
you think of the people living somewhere, whereas the whole of more often refers to a
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geographical area. All of occurs with both meanings. Note: Of must be used in the phrase
with the whole: the whole of Sweden (“hela Sverige”).
Every, each, everyone and everybody
With these pronouns, the verb is always in the singular form in the present tense.
Everybody hurts.
Each tends to be used to talk about two or more of something, and especially individual
entities, and every to talk about at least three, and especially when we refer to a group rather
than a number of individual entities.
All is only used to mean “everybody” in formal, old-fashioned language and some set
expressions. One size fits all.
Compounds like someone, nobody, everyone and everybody cannot be used before of. There
is however another form every one (two words) which can be used both about people and
things (whereas everyone can only be used about people). Every one can occur before of:
After reading every one of these emails, I have some observations and conclusions.
Every is used in three different constructions corresponding to Swedish “varannan”: every
two, every second, every other.
Many, much /a/ few, /a/ little, a great deal of, most etc
These pronouns refer to large and small quantities and usually function as determiners in
noun phrases, but some of them can also stand alone. They asked a lot of questions. A lot can
be said about it.
Some pronouns are used with plural nouns and some with uncountables. Many of them are
used primarily in informal language (for instance a couple of, plenty, lots /of/).
There are also other distinctions such as between a little and little and between a few and few.
There is little to be done about it. (more negative focus) There is a little cake left. (more
neutral)
Much is mainly used in negative and interrogative clauses, whereas plenty /of/ and lots /of/
mainly occur in affirmative clauses. In affirmative clauses, much is mostly used in formal
language: Much effort has gone into the investigation. Much can also function as an adverb:
much admired.
When most is used in a generic sense, there is no definite article in the noun phrase. Most
bands put a lot of effort into their music. However, when most refers to something specific
rather than something general, most of the is used instead. I love most of the bands on this list.
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Quantifying pronouns in relation to plural and uncountable nouns
Some quantifying pronouns are only used with plural nouns (many, several), others only with
uncountables (a great deal of) and some with both (any /of the/, some /of the/, lots of). See
MEV 324 for an overview of the different types.
Amount vs. number and similar words
In English, a great/good deal of, a large amount of, much etc are used with uncountables,
whereas a great/good many, many etc are used with plurals. A lot of, lots of and plenty can be
used with both types of noun. This can be difficult for Swedish learners of English. A
Swedish construction like “mycket folk” has no equivalent in English (many people).
Note: In the expression a /large, small/ number of + a plural noun, the verb is in the plural,
whereas the number of + plural takes a singular verb. There are a small number of plant
species that can endure the extreme conditions encountered along our state's coastline. The
number of species denotes indigenous species according to the definition of the Regional
Guidelines.The head word in the first sentence is species (plural) and a number of functions
as determiner in the noun phrase, but the head word in the second sentence is number
(singular) and of species is a postmodifier in that noun phrase.
Less and fewer
Less is used with uncountable nouns and fewer with plural nouns. However, less is very often
used with plural nouns as well, especially when followed by than and in speech and informal
writing. In formal language, fewer /than/ is preferred, especially to talk about people.
Note: When we talk about measurement, such as weight, a sum, or a period of time, less is
the only alternative.
Odds and ends: one, such, else, another, other/s/
One has a number of different functions. It substitutes for a singular countable noun after
adjectives, ordinal numbers and certain pronouns. It is used before of corresponding to
Swedish “någon/en av”. It is also used to refer generically to anyone (“man”).
Such has been mentioned as an exclamatory pronoun, but it is also used in ordinary
statements. Such comes before the indefinite article if there is one. That was such a waste of
energy. Such can also function as an adverb: If this is such great news, why…?
The plural form others can occur either with or without the definite article, depending on
whether you refer in a generic or specific sense.
Each other (two words!) and one another are sometimes called reciprocal pronouns and
correspond to Swedish “varandra”. Each other is much more frequent, and one another is
mainly used to talk about more than two. The genitive form of each other is each other’s (the
s is a genitive s and not a plural s in this case, even though each other refers to a plural
context).
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Referring generically to anyone (“man” - “den/de som”)
The Swedish impersonal and general pronoun “man” has several corresponding structures in
English.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The most formal word is one.
A less formal alternative is you, which is often used to give advice.
If you can include yourself, using we is possible and sometimes necessary.
They and people are typically used to talk about something far away (time/place), or
to refer vaguely to a group of people, such as the authorities. You cannot include
yourself if you use this alternative.
5. A very frequent way of translating Swedish “man” is to transform the construction
into a passive one.
A typical mistake that Swedish learners of English tend to make is to translate Swedish
“den/de som” - used to refer generally to any person - into the one who (which in English is
used to talk about someone specific). In English, another construction must be used, such as
anyone who, whoever, those who, people who: Those who help others will be rewarded. He
who should not be used, it only occurs in old sayings. In a specific context, however, the
one/person who or those/the people who should be used: He is the one who helped us.
Another common mistake is to use *they who or *them who instead of those who.
Referring back to a gender-neutral noun phrase
The use of a male pronoun to refer back to a gender-neutral noun phrase has traditionally
been the standard choice, but lately this usage has been much criticized. There are some
alternatives, such as he or she, he/she, his or her, his/her and so on. Sometimes s/he is used,
but this only works for personal pronouns and written language. Using a plural pronoun is
becoming increasingly common, especially with everybody and everyone: Everybody must
leave their shoes at the door. Sometimes it is possible to rephrase completely to avoid this
problem.
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Clauses and clause elements
Clauses (satser), clause elements (satsdelar), syntax (satslära) and sentence
analysis (satsanalys)
Clauses are the parts that make up sentences, and clause elements are the parts that make up
clauses. Syntax describes the way in which words are and can be combined into clauses and
sentences. Sentence analysis is what we do when we parse a sentence and name all the
constituent parts.
Grammar traditionally focuses on the concept of sentence. A written sentence typically starts
with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, an exclamation mark or a question mark.
Sentences can be used for different communicative functions: statement, wish, command,
question, exclamation.
A sentence consists of one or more clauses, and every clause is made up of clause elements.
Before we start talking about clause elements and clauses, let us return to the crucial
distinction between clause elements and word classes.
A word class is a permanent label for words that have certain grammatical features and
certain aspects of meaning in common. Some words belong to more than one word class (love
= noun + verb) and a few words belong to several word classes (round = adjective, adverb,
noun, verb, preposition). However, the word class (or word classes) to which each word
belongs always remains the same, and can be identified in isolation.
Even when a word belonging to a certain word class seems to take on the grammatical
function of another word class, it stays under the permanent label of its word class. For
instance, some adjectives, such as rich, can be used and treated as though they were nouns:
The rich tend to buy houses in this area. In this sentence, rich stands alone, without a noun as
a head word. Even so, the word rich does not turn into a noun, but remains an adjective (a
nominalized adjective).
A clause element on the other hand is the temporary role that a word, grammatical phrase
or dependent clause plays in a certain context/sentence. Clause elements are used to describe
the relationships between the different parts of a sentence. This means that a clause element
is never identified outside the clause in which it occurs. If you consider a word or phrase or
clause in a sentence out of context, it is no longer a clause element.
There are five main types of clause elements: Subject, verb, object, predicative, adverbial.
The subject element
The subject is what the clause is about, the topic of the clause. It is often animate, the person
or thing carrying out the action of the verb, but it can also be inanimate (the rain fell). Six
different structures can form subjects, three of which are whole dependent clauses:
♦A noun phrase (much more common than the others): The winner takes it all.
♦A dependent clause introduced by a wh-word, how or that: How you do it is not important.
♦A dependent clause introduced by a verb in the –ing form: Winning a race will be his next objective.
♦A dependent clause introduced by a verb in the infinitive: To prepare for a race is hard work.
♦A verb in the –ing form: Losing is the worst part of competing.
♦A verb in the infinitive: To lose is to learn.
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If the subject is a noun phrase, the head of the noun phrase decides whether the verb should
be in the singular form in the present tense (= take an –s). If the subject is a clause or a verb,
the related verb is always in the singular form.
Where do you find the subject in a sentence? In statements (declarative clauses), the subject
typically comes before the verb in English: subject-verb word order. In questions
(interrogative clauses), the finite verb comes before the subject. Directives (imperative
clauses) do not usually have a subject.
Some sentences have an agent as well apart from a subject. The subject of an active clause
corresponds to the agent in a passive clause.
I was informed by the authorities… (authorities = agent)
The authorities informed me… (authorities = subject)
The agent is the one who carries out the action in a passive clause.
He sold the car. = Active, the subject is active in the clause
The car was sold by him. = Passive, the subject is passive in the clause (passive construction
by means of be + perfect participle)
The verb element
The verb element in the clause identifies action, sensation, state of being etc. It can be simple
(he runs) or complex (he had been running, with auxiliaries).
The predicate verb in a complete sentence is always finite. All verbs except the modal
auxiliaries have both finite and non-finite forms. There are three finite verb forms: present
tense, past tense, imperative. There are three non-finite verb forms: the infinitive, the –ing
form, the past participle. Only the finite verbs have different forms depending on the number
and person of the subject. A main clause always contains a finite verb, whereas a dependent
clause can contain either a finite verb (and often one or more non-finite verbs) or just one or
more non-finite verbs. We will return to this in a little while.
The object element
The direct object is either a) what is affected by what is happening (he sold the house) or b)
the result of an action (he built the house). Often the direct object can be identified if we ask
who or what is affected by the action of the subject (What did he sell/build?). The direct
object of an active clause corresponds to the subject of a passive clause (The house was built
by him).
If there are two objects in a clause, one is direct and the other is indirect or prepositional. An
indirect object or prepositional object is often the recipient of the action. It is usually
animate. Direct and indirect objects never take a preposition. If there is a preposition, we
have a prepositional object (Oprep). The indirect object comes before the direct object,
whereas the prepositional object comes after it.
He gave me [Oi] a flashlight. He gave a flashlight to every child [Oprep].
An indirect object can be turned into a prepositional object like this:
My mother wrote me [Oi] a postcard. My mother wrote a postcard to me [Oprep].
Indirect and prepositional objects consist of noun phrases, whereas four different structures
can be used as the direct object of a clause:
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♦A noun phrase: light my fire
♦A dependent clause introduced by a wh-word or that: nobody told me what to read
♦A dependent clause introduced by a verb in the – ing form: they enjoyed being treated to dinner
♦A dependent clause introduced by a verb in the infinitive: I hope to see you there
The predicative element
After linking/copular verbs (be, become, seem = bindeverb) and verbs of perception (sound,
feel, look, smell, taste = sinnesverb), there is a predicative instead of an object.
NB: The verb be does not only occur together with predicatives, but also with certain
adverbials, such as prepositional phrases functioning as adverbials of place: This country is in
a mess.
Predicatives tend to come after the subject and the verb in a clause, just like objects, and can
be confused with objects. This is the way you tell them apart:
1. Whereas the object refers to something that is affected by the action of the subject,
and introduces something new, the predicative merely provides information about the
subject or the object of a clause. A linking verb does not say anything about the word
it describes (the subject/object) if there is no predicative. (“predikatsfyllnad”)
2. If you can replace the verb with an equal sign, then you have a subject predicative.
She was a dentist. (she = dentist) She called a dentist. (she ≠ dentist)
If you can put an equal sign between the object and what comes next, then you have
an object predicative. She considered the dentist a sadist. (dentist = sadist)
Linking verbs used with subject predicatives
Appear, be, become, come (true), end up, feel, get, go (mad), grow, keep, look, prove, remain,
seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn, turn out
Linking verbs used with object predicatives
call, consider, drive (sb crazy), find (sb guilty), keep (sb happy), look upon… as, make, name,
prove (sb wrong), regard… as
These structures can be used as predicatives:
♦An adjective phrase: He is old.
♦A noun phrase: He is the man of her dreams.
♦A dependent clause introduced by a wh-word: This is who I am.
♦A dependent clause including a verb in the –ing form: The alternative is finding another job.
♦A dependent clause introduced by a verb in the infinitive: All I want is to be left alone.
♦A verb in the infinitive: To leave is to grieve.
♦A numeral: My daughter is four.
The adverbial element
Adverbials provide information about the situation, for instance when, where, how (often),
why something happens. They can also link clauses, sentences or phrases, or provide the
speaker’s comment on probability or attitude to what is being said. Adverbials can often be
removed and the sentence remains grammatical. As a group, adverbials are the most “mobile”
clause elements of all, and there can be several adverbials in the same clause.
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Where?
How?
When?
To what degree? How much?
Why?
Does the word modify
the entire clause? If yes→
Adverbial of place
Adverbial of manner
Adverbial of time
Adverbial of degree
Adverbial of reason
Modal adverbial
Modal adverbials modify the entire clause as follows:
She will probably go there.
She will hopefully make it.
She will not be here then.
These structures can be used as adverbials:
♦An adverb phrase: They lived happily ever after.
♦A prepositional phrase: In the summertime, you can swim there.
♦A noun phrase: This year I got a teddy bear for Christmas.
♦A finite dependent clause introduced by a subordinator (because, if, since, when, where): When I need you, I
just call you.
♦A non-finite dependent clause introduced by a verb in the infinitive: He called me to discuss it.
♦A non-finite dependent clause introduced by a verb in the –ing form: Going home, I stopped at the store.
♦A dependent clause introduced by a past participle: Failed as a criminal, he decided to begin a new life.
♦A verbless clause (a clause introduced by a subordinator but lacking a verb): These vegetables lose some of
their color when cooked.
Clause types: main clauses and dependent clauses
There are two different types of clause. Main clauses can stand alone, and in formal writing a
complete sentence almost always contains a main clause. Dependent clauses cannot stand
alone. Dependent clauses function as clause elements or parts of clause elements in another
clause (a main clause), whereas a main clause never does.
A main clause always contains a finite verb (present tense, past tense, imperative). Dependent
clauses sometimes have a finite verb and sometimes only one or more non-finite verbs
(infinitive, -ing form, past participle).
We sometimes talk about finite clauses to refer to clauses containing a finite verb, and nonfinite clauses to refer to clauses not containing a finite verb. A main clause is always a finite
clause, whereas a dependent clause can be either finite or non-finite.
In a finite clause, there is almost always a subject (the exception is imperative clauses) and
the verb agrees with the subject. In a non-finite clause, the verb consists of the infinitive, the
ing-form or the past participle, and there is usually no subject.
She says she still likes him (finite clause, Od).
She tells him to close the door (non-finite clause, Od).
Examples:
People spend more [finite, main clause] when they are confident about the future [finite, dependent clause].
People spend money [finite, main clause] to increase their standard of living [non-finite, dependent clause].
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Spend more money! [finite, main imperative clause]
They are now in debt [finite, main clause] because of heavy spending [non-finite, dependent clause].
They are in debt [finite, main clause] because they spent their money on gambling [finite, dependent clause].
They are now in debt [finite, main clause] and will have to cut back on expenses [finite, main clause].
After cutting back on their expenses [non-finite, dependent clause], they are much happier [finite, main clause].
A main clause can stand on its own (a simple sentence), be coordinated with another main
clause (a compound sentence, typical of speech and low-level writing), or include one or
more dependent clauses (a complex sentence, typical of advanced/formal writing). Dependent
clauses are important for expressing logical reasoning, for instance in the argumentation and
explanation of scientific texts.
Simple sentences:
She likes running. She is a strong runner.
Compound sentences:
She likes running and she is a strong runner.
She likes running but she is not a very strong runner.
She goes running or she goes swimming.
Complex sentences:
She likes running because she is a strong runner.
She likes running when she feels strong.
She likes running as long as she is sure of winning.
She likes running although she never wins.
Many types of dependent clauses can come either at the beginning or at the end of the main
clause in which it is included.
Although she never wins she likes running.
Wherever I go there are traffic jams.
There are traffic jams wherever I go.
A dependent clause can also be part of another dependent clause:
She asked [where I had been {when she won the race}].
There are four main types of subordinate clauses: relative clauses, that-clauses, interrogative
clauses, and adverbial clauses.
→How do you recognize a dependent clause?
A dependent clause is often introduced by one of the following word types:
♦A subordinator (as, if, since, that, until, whereas): She admitted that she had forgotten it.
♦A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that): There was a teacher at school who really liked me.
♦An interrogative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, whoever, whichever, whatever): He asked me whose car
it was.
♦The infinitive marker to: The deal was too good to be true.
In English, especially in formal writing, a dependent clause can also start directly with a nonfinite verb, a so-called reduced clause:
A person suffering from the flu should stay in bed… (a reduced relative clause functioning as a postmodifier of
the noun person)
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Below is a proposal discussed at the meeting… (a reduced relative clause functioning as a postmodifier of the
noun proposal)
Being so tall, she shops for men’s clothes… (a reduced clause functioning as an adverbial: As/since she is so
tall)
Asked about his job, he said he was in the process of finding a new one…. (a reduced clause functioning as an
adverbial: When he was asked about his job)
Having read the report, I went to see the research team… (a reduced clause functioning as an adverbial: After I
had read…)
Pulling out a torch, he proceeded to climb down the well… (instead of: He pulled out a torch and proceeded…)
→The grammatical function of dependent clauses
A dependent clause can have various functions in the main clause. Four of these functions
(adverbials, subjects, objects and predicatives) are clause elements, whereas the other
functions are parts of grammatical phrases.
♦Adverbial: Ambition positions us where we belong.
♦Subject: What is so great is that old furniture is back in fashion.
♦Object: I know that I must leave.
♦Predicative: This is what I do.
♦Postmodifier in a noun phrase: A cougar is a lady who knows what she wants.
♦Prepositional complement in a prepositional phrase: You will receive instructions on where to go.
♦Adjective complement in an adjective phrase: I have never before been so happy to see you.
→Why is it important to know about main and dependent clauses?
If you know the difference between main and dependent clauses, you can avoid some
sentence structures which are not accepted in academic writing.
Sentence fragments are grammatical units that cannot stand on their own in formal writing.
He said that he wanted to take a break. A long one.
A sentence fragment can normally be joined to the rest of the sentence by means of a comma
or a dash.
A dangling participle (unacceptable in academic writing) means that a reduced clause at the
beginning of a sentence is used as if it belonged to the subject of the following clause.
Going home, there was a great thunderstorm.
(In this sentence, going home does not refer to there = dangling participle.)
Going home, we saw the sky turn white with lightning.
(Here, going home is correctly used, since it refers to the subject [we].)
A run-on sentence occurs when two main clauses are joined without a coordinator.
He was late for the meeting, she did not approve.
A run-on sentence can be remedied by turning it into two full sentences, adding a
coordinator, changing the punctuation (a semi-colon or a colon might work), or turning one
main clause into a dependent clause.
There is one type of acceptable run-on sentence. This is when three main sentences are
joined, the first two by a comma and the last one by and:
It is our most famous painting, it has been displayed for more than a century, and it is the
centerpiece of the new museum as well.
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