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HANDOUT 7
THE ETRUSCANS;
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Robert L. Cleve, Ph.D.
THE ORIGINS OF ROME
Tiber River: River adjacent to Rome; second largest (after the Po) in Italy.
Pax Romana: “The peace of Rome”; specifically, the period of the Roman
Empire at its height during the first and second centuries C.E.
Apennines: The mountain range of central Italy.
Etruscans: A non Indo-European people of northwestern Italy; the first
native civilization of Italy.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus: Greek historian who believed that the
Etruscans were of native origin.
Villanovan: Early iron-age culture of northern Italy.
Herodotus: Greek historian who believed that the Etruscans originated in
the East and migrated to Italy.
Campania: A rich agricultural region in southwestern Italy.
Pompeii: City on the Bay of Naples covered with volcanic ash in 79 C.E by
an eruption of Mount Vesusius.
Corsica:
Island off the northwestern coast of Italy.
Carthage: Phoenician city in North Africa, near modern Tunis.
Aeneid:
The epic poem of the Roman hero Aeneas by Virgil.
Aeneas:
Trojan prince and mythical founder of the Roman people.
Anchises: Father of Aeneas.
Venus = Aphrodite: Goddess of love; mother of Aeneas; thus also called
Venus Genitrix, “mother of the Roman state.”
Julus = Asconius: Son of Aeneas.
Dido:
Queen and founder of Carthage.
Alba Longa: City founded by Julus.
Numitor: King of Alba Longa; direct descendant of Aeneas.
Amulius: Younger brother of King Numitor and usurper of the throne.
Rhea Silvia: Daughter of Numitor.
Vestal Virgin: Priestess of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth.
Mars:
Roman god of war.
Romulus and Remus: The twin sons of Rhea Silvia by Mars.
Palatine: One of the seven hills of Rome.
Sabines:
A people of central Italy closely related to the Romans.
Quirinus: Romulus’ name as a god.
Tarquinius Superbus: “Tarquin the Proud,” last king of Rome.
Esquiline: One of the seven hills of Rome.
Capitoline: One of the seven hills of Rome.
Forum:
Central square or plaza; market place.
pater familias: The family patriarch; lit. “father of the family.”
comitia curiata: The oldest Roman assembly; composed of thirty curiae or
wards.
Patricians: Aristocratic class of Rome.
gens:
Clan; group of related families.
plebs = plebeians: The lower class of Rome; the common people.
Sextus Tarquinius: Son of Tarquinius Superbus.
Collatinus, Brutus: Leaders of the revolt against the king; the first two
consuls of Rome.
Lucretia: The virtuous wife of Collatinus
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Royal Period: The period of Roman history from the foundation (753
B.C.E., according to legend) to 509 B.C.E., when Rome was ruled
by kings.
Roman Republic: The period of Roman history between 509–27 B.C.E.,
when the Roman government was a republic.
Roman Empire: Two meanings
l. The territory of the Roman state outside of Italy.
2. The period of Roman history between 27 B.C.E.–476 C.E.,
when Rome was governed by an emperor.
imperator: “Emperor”; originally the title of a general in the Roman army,
but later come to be the title of the monarch.
mos majorum: “The customs of our ancestors.”
Senate:
Advisory body of ex-magistrates and one of the three branches of
the Roman government.
Magistrate: An elected official of Rome; the magistrates made up the
administrative branch of the Roman government.
provincia: The “province,” or assignment of a magistrate, especially a
consul; later used to designate the territory administered by a
governor.
Senatus Consultum Ultimum (SCU): “The Final Decree of the Senate,”
equivalent to a declaration of martial law.
popularis: the popular political faction or party in republican Rome; their
power base was the assembly.
optimates: The “best,” the name of the conservative faction in republican
Rome; their power base was the senate.
Cicero:
Famous Roman politician and writer, 106–43 B.C.E.
Catiline conspiracy: The attempt by Catiline in 63 B.C.E. to overthrow the
Roman government.
populus Romanus: The “Roman people.”
imperium: Executive power.
cursus honorum: A political career; lit. “course of honor.
veto:
A negative prohibition; lit. “I forbid.”
dictator:
Dictator, a special Roman magistrate who welded supreme, but
temporary, power in times of crisis.
Tribune:
(tribunus) A magistrate of the plebs; protector and spokesman
for the people.
quaestor: Lowest ranking magistrate of the state; assistant to a consul or
praetor.
aedile:
Magistrate; administered the public buildings, streets, games,
etc.
Praetor:
Second highest ranking magistrate; administered the court
system and served as governor of minor provinces,
Consul:
Highest public office; commander-in-chief, etc.; there were two
consuls with equal power.
Censor:
Magistrate who took the census, etc.; there were two censors
elected every five years for an eighteen month term.
comitia centuriata: A Roman assembly made up of 193 centuriae, or
centuries; a majority of these voting units were assigned to the
wealthiest classes..
comitia tributa: Most important Roman assembly, composed of thirty five
tribes; in this assembly all citizens were equal, but it was
weighted in favor of the rural tribes which were more
conservative.
Senatus Populusque Romanus: (SPQR) “the Senate and the People of
Rome.”
equites:
the highest property class; they became a separate order, the
“business” class of the late Republic and Empire..
proletarii: the lowest property class; those who owned no property at all.
jugerum: Roman measure of land, about 2/3 acre.
centuria: “century;” company of one hundred soldiers.
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Patricians: The aristocratic “order,” or class, of ancient Rome.
plebs:
Plebeians, the “common” people, Roman citizens who were not
patricians.
Secession of the plebs: The withdrawal of the plebs from the state in
support of their demands for political rights.
Orders (ordo): The social classes of Rome; originally there were only two,
patricians and the plebeians, but later the equites later became
a recognized order.
Twelve Tables: The first written Roman law code, c. 450 B.C.E.
nobilities = Nobility: The new unofficial upper class consisting of the
patricians plus the leading plebeian families; including all those
families who could trace their ancestry back to at least one
consul. This was not an official order.
sine suffragio: Citizenship “without franchise,” i.e. without the right to vote
and hold office in Rome.
socii = Allies: Those Italians not yet granted citizenship.
Pyrrhus: King of Epirus who led a Greek army into southern Italy to aid
the Greeks there against Roman expansion.
Heraclea: Site of the “Pyrrhic victory” of Pyrrhus over Rome.
Punic Wars: The series of three wars (264–241, 218–202, 149–146 B.C.E.)
between Rome and Carthage. The first two of these wars decided
who would be supreme in the western Mediterranean.
Hannibal: Carthaginian general who invaded and ravished Italy for some
fifteen years during the Second Punic War.
Defensive Imperialism:
modern term often applied to the Roman
rationalization of its expansion after the Second Punic War.
Pergamum: Kingdom in Asia Minor that was willed to Rome in 133 B.C.E.
by its king.
provincia = Province: A territory outside of Italy ruled by a Roman
governor.
equites:
Middle class Roman citizens; they carried on most of the
commercial activities of Rome.
latifundia: Large estates in Italy owned by senators or rich equites.
proletarii Landless, unemployed Roman citizens; the lowest property class.
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus: Brothers who attempted land reforms
intended to settle the proletarii on land confiscated from the rich
landowners.
Gaius Marius: Transformed Roman army from a conscript citizen militia
into a professional military organization made up of volunteers.
Jugurtha: African king who fought a war against Rome, 111–104 B.C.
Cohart:
New regiment or tactical unit of Marius’ professional army.
popularis: The “popular” political faction of Rome, based on the assembly.
optimates: The “best;” the conservative, aristocratic political faction, based
in the senate.
Social War: The war between Rome and its Italian allies (socii).
Lucius Cornelius Sulla: general who led his army on Rome and made
himself dictator.
First Triumvirate: a three-man commission or board; specifically, the
political alliance, formed in 63 B.C.E., between Pompey, Caesar
and Crassus to dominate the Roman state.
Gnaius Pompey: General and triumvir; later defeated by Caesar.
Marcus Crassus: Triumvir and richest man in Rome; killed in war against
Parthia.
Gaius Julius Caesar: Triumvir; later made himself dictator for life;
assassinated in 44 B.C.E.
Marcus Cicero: Roman politician and perhaps the most famous Latin
writer; consul in 63 B.C.E. during the Catiline conspiracy.
OUTLINE OF ROMAN
CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY
I
MONARCHY (traditional dates, 753–509 B.C.E.)
A.
B.
C.
II.
KING. Possessed absolute imperium (executive, military and judicial
power) and functioned as the chief priest of the state religion.
SENATE. Advisory council of elders. Elected new king and gave advice
when requested. Originally it was probably composed of the heads of
families (paterfamilias) of the leading clans (gens).
ASSEMBLIES.
(1)
Comitia Curiata. Earliest Roman assembly. Made up of ten curiae
(wards) from each tribe. Conferred imperium upon the new king
and approved laws.
(2)
Comitia Centuriata. Originated during Late Monarchy, but
reached full development during the early Republic (see below).
Ratified declarations of war and peace.
REPUBLIC (circa 509–27 B.C.E.)
A.
SENATE. Now composed of all ex-magistrates. Although legally an
advisory body to the magistrates, its power and prestige gradually
increased until it became, in effect, the supervisory organ of the state:
(1)
Assigned duties, or provincia, of the magistrates.
(2)
Approved legislative proposals before submission to assembly.
(3)
Authorized the size of armies through draft quotas.
(4)
Supervised the treasury, rate of taxation and coinage.
(5)
Conducted foreign policy.
(6)
After the Gracchi period, issued Senatus Consultum Ultimum
(SCU), a form of martial law that suspended civil rights and
empowered the consuls to take extraordinary action against
“enemies of the state.”
B.
MAGISTRATES. Administered the government. They were elected by
the Roman people.
(1)
CONSULS. The two consuls were the supreme civil and military
magistrates of the Roman state. Elected annually. Since they had
equal imperium, they could veto each other as well as all other
magistrates, except the tribunes or a dictator.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
C.
PRAETORS. Administered justice and could also be appointed
governors of minor provinces by the Senate after their terms of
office.
AEDILES. Served as assistants to consuls. Administered public
buildings and streets. Provided public games at their own expense.
QUAESTORS. Supervised the archives and treasury. Served as
assistants to the consuls, military tribunes and provincial
governors.
TRIBUNES. Ten tribunes were elected annually by the plebs to
protect them from the abuse of the government. Their persons were
sacrosanct and they had right of veto over all actions of all
government officials and institutions except a dictator. Could call
sessions and preside over of the assembly.
CENSORS. Two were elected each five years for an 18-month
term. They drew up an official list of citizens (census) and of
senators. Controlled public morals and supervised public contracts.
DICTATOR. Nominated by a consul and confirmed by the
Senate, he held absolute imperium. His task was to handle a state
crisis, normally a foreign invasion. Term lasted 6 months or until
the end of the crisis, whichever came first.
ASSEMBLY (COMITIA). The sovereignty of the Roman state was vested
in the Roman people and expressed through the assembly of the people.
However, the people did not vote directly, but by political units or wards.
The people were assembled in different configurations for different
purposes and there were thus several different assemblies (or ways of
organizing the assembly).
(1)
Comitia curiata. Only function during the Republic was to confer
imperium on consuls and praetors.
(2)
Comitia centuriata. For the voting purposes in this assembly, the
citizen body was divided into 5 property classes plus the equites,
craftsmen and proletarii (landless unemployed), based on wealth,
and assigned to 193 centuria (centuries) as follows: equites, 18;
first class, 80; second, third and fourth classes, 20 each; fifth class,
80; craftsmen, 4; and proletarii (not numerous in the early
Republic, but the most numerous group of all in the late Republic),
1. Since the voting was by century, this assembly was heavily
biased toward wealth and the equites plus 79 centuries of the first
class formed a majority and could carry any vote. This assembly
declared war and peace and elected consuls, praetors and censors.
(3)
Comitia tributa. For this assembly, the citizens were divided into
35 tribes in which wealth played no significant part. However,
since there were only three urban tribes, as the city’s population
grew, the assembly became biased in favor of the more
conservative rural citizens. This Assembly elected aediles and
quaestors and passed legislation.
(4)
III.
Concilium plebis. Since this assembly was composed of only
plebs, it was not really an assembly of the state but only of the
plebeian class (order). This assembly spearheaded the plebeian
cause during the struggle of the orders, but during the late Republic
it met only to elect tribunes. While it had the authority to pass
binding legislation, most laws were usually submitted to the
comitia tributa, which represented all the people.
EMPIRE (after 27 B.C.E.). During the early empire the institutions and
offices above continued to function, but all real power was vested in the
Princeps, or Imperator (emperor), who held no specific office but was vested
with imperium maius (supreme power) and tribunicia potestas (power of the
tribune), as well as supreme religious powers and auctoritas or “authority.”