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Basics of Genetics and Female Foeticide Guru Nanak asserted that women are not at all inferior to men: "From the woman is our birth, in the woman's womb are we shaped; To the The woman woman is we our are engaged, friend and to the from the woman we woman is are the wedded; family; If one woman dies, we seek another, through the woman are the bonds of the world; Why call woman evil who gives birth to kings? From the woman comes the woman, without woman there is none; O Nanak, God alone is the one Who is independent of the woman (because He is unborn)." Historically, women have been held responsible (blamed!) for not producing the son. Are women responsible for the sex of the child? Which parent actually determines the gender of the child? One of the most fundamental decisions during embryonic development is whether to develop as a male or female. It is therefore surprising that such an important decision is so flexible in evolutionary terms. The primary triggers for sex determination can be as diverse as a dominant gene in the Y chromosome which comes from the man, dosage of the sex chromosomes relative to autosomes, ploidy, temperature, pheromones or bacterial infections. Major challenge is to understand how one mechanism changes to another in relatively short evolutionary times. To understand this, first we have to know about the genetics. GENETICS Have you ever wondered why you have the same eye colour as your mother or the same hair colour as your father? Genetics is the study of heredity or inheritance. Genetics helps to explain how traits are passed from parents to their young. Parents pass traits to their young through gene transmission. Genes are located on chromosomes and consist of DNA. They contain specific instructions for protein synthesis. In 1865 a monk named Gregor Mendel in Austria proposed that hereditary traits passed from parents to offspring were the result of unseen “factors” that contained the information from generation to generation. Mendel came to the conclusion by crossbreeding pea plants. For his initial work with the pea plants, which was substantial for the time and holds true in many cases for modern genetics, Gregor Mendel is credited as the founder of genetics. After Mendel’s proposal it was later discovered that the “factors” were located in the nuclei of cells, in bands called chromosomes. Specific traits, such as blue eyes or purple flowers, as in Mendel’s garden peas, are located in short stretches on the chromosomes. One chromosome will contain many genes and together these hold all of the developmental information of every living organism. Genetics is the study of genes and chromosomes, their translation and inheritance. Although that definition appears simple it has proven very complex and highly useful. Genetics has become an invaluable tool for fighting various diseases; it is used in courtrooms to defend or condemn suspects, and it has also made its way into archaeology and zoology. How Do Genes Work Genes are made of four different nucleotide bases. A nucleotide is a molecule composed of a nitrogen base, a phosphate group, and a sugar. The four bases are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. Adenine (A) is always paired with thymine (T). Cytosine (C) is paired with guanine (G). Strung out together these bases form two strands in a double helix like a twisted ladder. On a chromosome genes are wound tightly, like thread over a spool. When a cell prepares to divide it unwinds the genes from their positions on the chromosome and splits the strands apart. Because adenine always bonds with thymine and guanine with cytosine the cell can remake the gene strands, copying them exactly. If one strand reads AATTCGCG then the enzymes in the cell will create a complementary strand to read TTAAGCGC. Cells draw on genetic information to produce proteins. To do this the cell unwinds the DNA and transcribes it into mRNA, messenger RNA, which is processed by the cell as instructions for making protein. Chromosomes and Sex Chromosomes are long, stringy aggregates of genes that carry heredity information. They are composed of DNA and proteins and are located within the nucleus of our cells. Chromosomes determine everything from hair colour and eye colour to sex. Whether you are a male or female depends on the presence or absence of certain chromosomes. The human species has 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes appear the same and one pair of sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are the X chromosome and the Y chromosome. If you are a male, you have the standard 22 pairs, plus one X and one Y chromosome. If you are a female, you will have the standard 22 pairs, plus two X chromosomes. Presence of these X and Y chromosomes determines the sex of the offspring. Chromosomes contain the genetic codes that determine our physical appearance and how we function as a living being. The genetic code is contained within a molecule commonly referred to as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). In the 1980's scientists discovered that the genetic code contained within chromosomes does not always direct the synthesis of cell products, but contained highly variable regions of "nonsense" DNA. It was later discovered that these regions could be used as markers for the identification of individuals. The use of these DNA markers in criminal forensics is common throughout the world today. Sex Chromosomes In human sexual reproduction, two distinct gametes fuse to form a zygote. Gametes are reproductive cells produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. They contain only one set of chromosomes and are said to be haploid. The male gamete, called the spermatozoan, is relatively motile and usually has a flagellum. The female gamete, called the ovum, is non-motile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete. When the haploid male and female gametes unite in a process called fertilization, they form what is called a zygote. The zygote is diploid, meaning that it contains two sets of chromosomes. The male gametes or sperm cells in humans and other mammals are heterogametic and contain one of two types of sex chromosomes. They are either X or Y. The female gametes or eggs however, contain only the X sex chromosome and are homogametic. The sperm cell determines the sex of an individual in this case. If a sperm cell containing an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be XX or female. If the sperm cell contains a Y chromosome, then the resulting zygote will be XY or male. A Y-chromosome is the sex chromosome found only in males. The two types of sex chromosomes, X and Y, determine the sex of an embryo. Women have two X chromosomes and men have an X and a Y chromosome. Because of this, the sex of the child is determined by which chromosome the male passes down. At approximately the eighth week of prenatal development, the Y-chromosome triggers the development of male sex organs. A crucial event that determines whether the embryo will develop into a male or female occurs in the second half of week six of the foetus development. If the Y chromosome is present in the embryo's cells, a gene within the short arm of the chromosome called sex-determining region (SRY) will turn on, initiating a chemical chain reaction that will turn on other genes and stimulate the production of male hormones. If the X chromosome is present, or if the SRY gene is missing from the Y chromosome, the embryo will develop into a female via mechanisms that are not fully understood. The Y chromosome, like the other 22 pairs within the cell, also contains non-coding variable regions of DNA. These regions have been rigorously studied and the data generated has proven extremely useful in population studies. It has been discovered that there is significant variability within the polymorphic regions of the Y chromosome between populations, but there is little or no variability between father and son. The Human Genome Project has given us an invaluable tool for the verification of male lineage. FEMALE FOETICIDE AND INFANTICIDE IN INDIA Among various women related issues in India, the female foeticide and female infanticide has become one of the social problems. There is a belief regarding the nature of men and women: "Men are ritually pure, physically strong, and emotionally mature; women, on the other hand, are ritually pollutable, physically weak, and lack strong willpower." Because of these beliefs parents are unwilling to invest time on daughters. The advent of technology and misuse of pre-natal sex detection and also attitude of the unscrupulous medical practitioners, who are facilitating the female foeticide through induced abortions. There are strict laws and penal actions against violators, but the laws have not worked. Over 10 million female foetuses have been aborted in India in the past two decades. The sex ratio as per 2001 census the females are 933 per 1000 males. Although a marginal improvement in the overall female to male sex ratio in India from 1991 to 2001 is an encouraging development. It is pertinent to note that the figures show the fall in the juvenile sex ratio is much higher in the economically developed States in India. There is steep fall in sex ratio in States like, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Maharashtra, along with the Union territories of Delhi and Chandigarh. In Punjab there are only 874 females per 1,000 males. The situation in Haryana, Gujarat and Maharashtra is also similar - the females are 861, 921 and 922 respectively per 1,000 males. Kerala is the only State where females are 1,058 per 1,000 males. In India the reason behind in rise of female foeticide is because of the strong son preference in society, universalisation of the small family norm, practices like tradition of giving dowry, laws that govern property inheritance and the cultural perception about the familial name through the male line. The mortality of girl child is also high because of parental discrimination against their daughters in terms of health care and nutrition. According to a recent report by the United Nations Children's Fund up to 50 million girls and women are missing from India's population as a result of systematic gender discrimination in India. There are instances like, leaving days old girl-child near the gates of Governmental Health Centres, Juvenile Centres, Temples and Churches leaving baby's fate to God. Selling girl child for few hundred rupees to childless couples is another atrocity. Several Incentives and Schemes were introduced by the Government of India to reduce Infant Mortality Rate in India and to discourage the practice of female infanticide. To combat the situation Government of India had enacted Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994 to provide for the regulation of the use of pre-natal diagnostic techniques for the purpose of detecting genetic or metabolic disorders or chromosomal abnormalities or certain congenital malformation or sex linked disorders and for the prevention of the misuse of such techniques for the purpose of pre-natal sex determination leading to female foeticide. The Supreme Court of India in its recent Judgment observed and issued directions to central and State Governments, Union Territories, Central Supervisory Board and Appropriate authorities for proper implementation of the Act. In the words of Supreme Court of India, It is unfortunate that for one reason or the other, the practice of female infanticide still prevails despite the fact that gentle touch of a daughter and her voice has soothing effect on the parents. One of the reasons may be the marriage problems faced by the parents compelled with the dowry demand by the so-called educated and/or rich persons who are well placed in the society. The traditional system of female infanticide where by female baby was done away with after birth by poisoning or letting her choke on husk continues in a different form by taking advantage of advance medical techniques. Unfortunately, developed medical science is misused to get rid of a girl child before birth. Knowing fully well that it is immoral and unethical as well as it may amount to an offence, foetus of a girl child is aborted by qualified and unqualified doctors or compounders. This has affected overall sex ratio in various States where female infanticide is prevailing without any hindrance. The Supreme Court of India directed the Central Government to create public awareness against the practice of pre-natal determination of sex and female foeticide through appropriate advertisements in the print and electronic media by hoardings and other appropriate means. Here are some ideas to prevent female infanticide and female foeticide. - Free education for women up to college and even post graduate education in government run institutions (Similar plans are being implemented in many states in India) - Males should stand up to their own moms and dads when they start chirping about unwanted female children. - Create a feminine movement so that women feel a sisterhood towards each other and stand up for a woman in a neighbouring house rather than turn a blind eye. - Refuse marriage of women into households or be very careful of families that have only male children or a very high percentage of males. - Do not provide any government incentives to families that have only males. - Provide extra incentives for families that have more than one girl child. This will help correct the gender balance in a few years. - If you have a female child, educate her and provide her the same opportunities as a male child. This is the one thing that makes female killing folks look foolish and dumb. - Encourage marriage of males to educated women. Conversely, an educated female class will be more aware of their rights. ‒ VINEETA SINGHAL Associate Editor NISCAIR e-mail: [email protected]