Download Chapter 1 - The Human Body: Notes

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Chapter 1 - The Human Body: Notes
Mrs. Peck
I. AN OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (p. 2)
A. Anatomy (p. 2)
Anatomy- the study of the structure and shape of the body & body parts & their
relationships to one another
1. Gross Anatomy- study of large observable structures
2. Microscopic Anatomy- study of cells & tissues of body (as seen thru microscope)
Dissection- aimed at helping us understand the f’ns of ea of the various levels of
organization, but body works as a whole & is more complex than sum of its parts
B. Physiology (p. 2)
Physiology- study of how the body & its parts work or function
diff. types of physiology eg. neurophysiology, cardiac physiology
C. Relationship Between Anatomy and Physiology (p. 2)
1. Anatomical structure determines physiological function
eg: digestive system: single long tube from entrance to exit, with twists & turns
2. Anatomy & physiology are separate but closely related concepts.
*A slight change in anatomy can have a significant effect on physiology
II. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION (pp. 2-7)
A. From Atoms to Organisms (pp. 2-3)
Every level of the system relies on the smooth workings of the level preceding it
Malfunction at any level may have life-threatening consequences
1. Chemical Level- atoms combine to form molecules
atom- building blocks of matter
2. Cellular Level- molecules combine to form cells such as smooth muscle cells
cell- smallest units of all living things
3. Tissue Level- similar cells combine to form tissues such as smooth muscle tissue
tissue- groups of similar cells that have a common function
eg: epithelial, connective, muscular, neural
II. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION (pp. 2-7)
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A. From Atoms to Organisms (pp. 2-3)
4. Organ Level- differing tissues combine to form organs
organ- structure that is composed of two or more tissue types & performs a specific
function for the body
eg: such as a blood vessel made of epithelial, smooth, and connective tissues
5. Organ System Level- differing organs combine to form organ systems
organ system- group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose
eg: digestive: includes esophagus, stomach, small & large intestine, colon ect.
each organ has their job to do
organs work together to move food thru system: breaking it down & absorbing nutrients
6. Organismal Level- many organs systems combine to form organisms
highest level of structural organization
eg: human being
II. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION (pp. 2-7)
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B. Organ System Overview (pp. 3-7)
Organ systems have a primary f’n, but all are closely interrelated & impact each oth.
discuss f’nal relationship b/w muscles & bones, respiratory & cardiovascular systems
1. Integumentary System- external covering for body, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous
reception, sweat and oil gland secretion
skin, the external covering of the body
waterproofs body
cushions & protects deeper tissues from injury
excretes salts & urea via perspiration
helps regulate body temperature
2. Skeletal System- protect & support deeper movement, hematopoiesis, mineral storage
consists of bone, cartilages, ligaments, & joints
supports body
provides a framework that muscles use to cause movement
protective function
eg: skull protects brain
hematopoiesis- formation of blood cells within cavities of skeleton
bones act as a storehouse for minerals
3. Muscular System- manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression,
maintains posture, and produces heat
muscles have one f’n: to contract (shorten)
-allows locomotion
-maintains posture
-produces heat
3 Types:
1. Skeletal Muscles - large fleshy muscles attached to bones
2. Cardiac Muscle- heart muscle
3. Smooth Muscle- surround blood vessels & hollow organs
move fluids (blood, urine) or other substances (food) along
definite pathways within the body
4. Nervous System- fast-acting response to internal and external stimuli, activation of
muscles and glands
fast-acting control system
consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors
respond to irritants or stimuli .....outside of body (light, sound, temp changes)
........inside of body (decreases in oxygen)
1. sensory receptors detect changes
2. send messages via nerve impulse to CNS (brain & spinal cord)
3. CNS assesses info and responds by activating appropriate body effectors
(muscles or glands)
5. Endocrine System- secretion of hormones which regulate growth, reproduction,
metabolism
controls body activities (slower than nervous system)
endocrine glands produce hormones (molecules) & release to blood
glands:
pituitary
thyroid
parathyroid
adrenals
thymus
pancreas
pineal
ovaries
testes
6. Cardiovascular System- transportation of blood which carries oxygen, CO2 , nutrients,
and wastes
consists of heart and blood vessels
blood is used as transporting fluid
carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, & other substances to and from tissues
white blood cells and chemicals in blood protect body from bacteria, toxins, tumors
heart acts as a pump that moves blood thru vessels
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7. Lymphatic System- returns leaked fluid to blood, disposes of debris, houses white blood
cells for immunity
consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, ect
complementary role to the cardiovascular system
lymphatic vessels return fluid leaked from blood to blood vessels
lymph nodes (& oth. lymphatic organs) cleanse blood & house immunity cells
8. Respiratory System- maintains blood oxygen & removes carbon dioxide via lung air sacs
consists of nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
within lungs are alveoli that exchanges gases with blood
supplies body with oxygen & removes carbon dioxide
9. Digestive System- breaks down ingested food for absorption, eliminates undigested
foods as feces
consists of oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestine, & rectum
includes liver which secretes bile wh/ breaks down fats
includes pancreas which secretes digestive enzymes
a tube running thru the body from mouth to anus
role: 1. break down food & deliver nutrients to blood to be dispersed thru body
2. reclaim water from food bolus
10. Urinary System- eliminates nitrogenous wastes; regulates water, electrolyte, and
acid-base balance of blood
consists of kidneys, ureters, bladder, & urethra
called the excretory system
removes nitrogen-containing waste (urea) from break down of proteins
maintaining the body’s water & salt balance
regulates the acid-base balance of the blood
11. Reproductive System- production of viable offspring
a. Male- consists of testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, & duct system
testes produce sperm & male sex hormones
b. Female- consists of ovaries & female duct system
female duct system consists of uterine tubes, uterus, & vagina
ovaries produce eggs & female sex hormones
fertilization of egg by sperm
dev of fetus in uterus
mammary glands to nourish newborn
III. MAINTAINING LIFE (pp. 7-9)
A. Necessary Life Functions (pp. 7-9)
many organ systems attribute to these life functions
1. Maintaining Boundaries- keep inside distinct from outside
each cell has cell membrane to keep its boundary
skin maintains whole body boundary
(protects from environment)
2. Movement- performed by muscular system wh/ is attached to the skeletal system
movement of blood, food, urine thru cardiovascular, digestive, & urinary
3. Responsiveness (irritability)- ability to sense changes in env. & react to them
nervous system plays primary role in this life f’n
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III. MAINTAINING LIFE (pp. 7-9)
A. Necessary Life Functions (pp. 7-9)
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4. Digestion- breaking down ingested food into simple molecules
nutrients absorbed into blood & are transported thru-out body
5. Metabolism- chemical reactions that occur within body cells
catabolism- breaking down complex substances into simpler
anabolism- making larger substances from smaller ones
respiration- using oxygen to break down glucose to make ATP
regulated mostly by the endocrine hormones
6. Excretion- removal of wastes from the body
urinary system- removes nitrogenous waste
digestive system- removes undigested food (feces)
7. Reproduction- production of offspring
(regulated by endocrine system)
production of new cells for growth or repair
8. Growth- increase in size thru cell production
cell production rate greater than cell destruction rate
Every life function relies on multiple systems
eg: digestion, metabolism
III. MAINTAINING LIFE (pp. 7-9)
B. Survival Needs (p. 9)
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nutrients- chemicals used for energy and cell building
1. Nutrients (food)- supplies energy and building blocks for cell production
carbohydrates- major energy source
glucose
starch- polymers of glucose
glycogen- 2 glucose molecules bonded....stored in liver
proteins- used for cell and enzyme production
lipids- (fats) used for cell production
energy reserve
insulation of body and organs
vitamins and minerals- used for biochemical reactions
2. Oxygen- used in respiration (break down of glucose into ATP)
3. Water- provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
base of blood
most abundant chemical substance in body ( 60%- 80% of body weight)
obtained thru ingestion
loss via perspiration, evaporation form lungs, & body excretion
III. MAINTAINING LIFE (pp. 7-9)
B. Survival Needs (p. 9)
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4. Body Temperature- humans are endothermic....must maintain constant temp (~98°F)
heat generated via muscle activity
death occurs if temperature varies too much
temp drops- metabolic reactions slow
temp raises- metabolic reactions occur rapidly
proteins denature (break down)
5. Atmospheric Pressure- force exerted on body by weight of the air
breathing dependent upon ATM pressure
gas exchange dependent....therefore metabolism dependent
Inhalation:
diaphragm contracts....increases volume of lungs..decreases lung pressure
higher ATM pressure than inside lungs.....air rushes into area of low pressure
Expiration (exhalation):
diaphragm relaxes...decrease lung volume....increases pressure inside lungs
higher internal lung pressure than ATM pressure....air rushes out of lungs
Describe the physiological effects of working outside on a 100° F day and compare that to
being outside on a day that is below freezing.
How does body compensate & maintain homeostasis?
Even though our bodies are not exposed to extremes of heatstroke or frostbite, they are still
in a constant state of flux, balancing between a range of “normal” values that are rarely static
IV. HOMEOSTASIS (pp. 9-11)
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homeostasis- the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even
though the external env. is continuously changing
A. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms (p. 10-11)
1. Receptor- stimulus response via afferent pathway
2. Control Center- determines set point and analyzes incoming information
to determine appropriate response
3. Effector- response via efferent pathway
4. Negative Feedback Mechanisms- heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate,
blood glucose
net effect of response is to shut off original stimulus or reduce its intensity
chief regulators of homeostasis under normal healthy conditions.
A rise in any given value (blood pH, heart rate, blood pressure) precipitates a
reaction to lower it, until such time as it becomes too low, causing negative
feedback to initiate responses to raise it again.
eg: thermostat in room & HVAC system
5. Positive Feedback mechanisms- blood clotting, childbirth
more rare than negative feedback mechanisms
eg: childbirth involves an ever-increasing buildup of responses that trigger the
next response until they bring about the culmination of a major event
like a nuclear reaction, positive feedback involves a series of chain
reactions of ever-increasing magnitude
B. Homeostatic Imbalance (p. 11)
condition that can result in disease
aging- body becomes less efficient at maintaining homeostasis increasing
illness, disease, and effects of aging
V. THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY (pp. 11-20)
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A. Anatomical Position (p. 11) - body is erect with the feet parallel & the arms hanging
at the sides with the palms facing forward
B. Regional Terms (pp. 12-13, fig. 1.5)
1. Anterior Body Landmarks
a. abdominal- anterior body trunk inferior to ribs
b. acromial- point of shoulder
c. antecubital- anterior surface of elbow
d. axillary- armpit
e. brachial- arm
f. buccal- cheek area
g. carpal- wrist
h. cervical- neck region
i.
coxal- hip
j.
crural- leg
k. digital- fingers, toes
l. femoral- thigh
m.
fibular- lateral part of leg
n. inguinal- area where thigh meets
body trunk; groin
o. nasal- nose area
p. oral- mouth
q. orbital- eye area
r.
patellar- anterior knee
s.
pelvic- area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
t.
pubic- genital region
u. sternal- breastbone area
v.
tarsal- ankle region
w. thoracic- chest
x. umbilical- navel
V. THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY (pp. 11-20)
B. Regional Terms (pp. 12-13 fig. 1.5)
2. Posterior Body Landmarks
a.
calcaneal- heel of foot
b. cephalic- head
c. deltoid- curve of shoulder formed by
large deltoid muscle
d.
femoral- thigh
e. gluteal- buttock
f.
lumbar- area of back between ribs & hips
g. occipital- posterior surface of head
h.
i.
j.
olecranal- posterior surface of elbow
popliteal- posterior knee area
sacral- area between hips
k. scapular- shoulder blade region
l.
sural- posterior surface of lower leg; calf
m. vertebral- area of spine
n.
plantar- sole of the foot (actually on the inferior body surface not posterior)
Activity 1. locate radial, brachial, carotid, femoral, popliteal, & pedal pulses using
tactile and stethoscope methods.
Activity 2. Play “simon-says” with anatomical terms
Activity 3. Pin the tail on the person using cards with anatomical terms
V. THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY (pp. 11-20)
C. Directional Terms (p. 14; Table 1.1)
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used to explain exactly where one body structure is in relation to another
learn as opposites
1. superior- toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
2. inferior- away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the
body, below
3. anterior (Ventral)- toward or at the front of the body; in front of
4. posterior (Dorsal)- toward or at the backside of the body; behind
5. medial- toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
6. lateral- away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
7. intermediate- between a more medial and a more lateral structure
8. proximal- close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a
limb to the body trunk
9. distal- farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb
to the body trunk
10. superficial-toward or at the body surface
11. deep- away from the body surface; more internal
ventral and anterior are synonymous in humans; not the case in four-legged animals.
ventral refers to the “belly” of an animal and is the inferior surface of the four-legged animal
dorsal and posterior are synonymous in humans; not the case in four-legged animals
dorsal refers to the “back” of an animal and is the superior surface of the four-legged animal
V. THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY (pp. 11-20)
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D. Body Planes and Sections (p. 13 & 17; Figure 1.6)
section- a cut through body wall, organ, or tissue
1. sagittal section- lengthwise (longitudinal) division into right & left parts
a. midsagittal section- right & left parts have equal size
median section
2. frontal section - lengthwise (longitudinal) division into anterior & posterior parts
coronal section
3. transverse (horizontal) section - cross-sectional division into superior & inferior parts
cross section
E. Body Cavities (pp. 17-18; Figure 1.8)
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1. Dorsal Body Cavity- protection of delicate central nervous system neurons
a. Cranial Cavity - superior; brain & pituitary gland
b. Spinal Cavity - inferior; spinal cord
2. Ventral Body Cavity-much larger than dorsal cavity (thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities)
a. Thoracic Cavity - superior;
trachea, lungs, heart
diaphragm - dome-shaped muscular division b/w thoracic & abdominal cavities
mediastinum - separates lungs into right & left cavities
b. Abdominopelvic Cavity - (no true separation b/w abdominal & pelvic cavities)
i. Superior Abdominal Cavity - stomach, liver, intestines, other organs
ii. Inferior Pelvic Cavity - reproductive organs, bladder, rectum
E. Body Cavities (pp. 17-18; Figure 1.8)
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2. Ventral Body Cavity
iii. Abdominopelvic Quadrants - 4
(used by medical personnel)
(1) Right Upper Quadrant
(2) Right Lower Quadrant
(3) Left Upper Quadrant
(4) Left Lower Quadrant
iv. Abdominopelvic Regions - 9
(1) Umbilical Region
(used by anatomists)
centermost region
(2) Epigastric Region
superior to the umbilical region (above stomach)
(3) Hypogastric (Pubic) Region
inferior to umbilical region (hypo- low)
(4) Right Iliac (inguinal) Region lateral to hypogastric region (iliac sup. hip bone)
(5) Left Iliac (inguinal) Region
lateral to hypogastric region (iliac sup. hip bone)
(6) Right Lumbar Region
lateral to umbilical region
(7) Left Lumbar Region
lateral to umbilical region
(8) Right Hypochondriac Region
(9) Left Hypochondriac Region
lateral to epigastric region (chondro- cartilage)
lateral to epigastric region (chondro- cartilage)
*activity: use tape to make planes,
attach signs of 9 regions