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APES Flashcard Review
A resource that is not sustainable because it will
be depleted before it can be replenished…
• Non-renewable resource.
• Examples: oil, coal, natural gas, copper, iron,
gold.
Sustainable resources that can be replenished
before they are used up…
• Renewable resources.
• Examples: solar energy, wind energy, timber,
water, fertile soil, fisheries.
The practice of using a resource at a rate that is less
than or equal to the rate that it is naturally
replenished….
• Sustainability
Describe the Tragedy of the
Commons…
• A resource that is free and available to
everyone is overused and depleted as a result
of shortsightedness.
• Ex. Overfishing, overgrazing, aquifer
depletion, etc.
Relatively affluent countries with a high per
capita gross domestic product (GDP) are called…
• Developed countries (MDC)
• Examples include the U.S., Canada, Japan and
Australia.
Less affluent countries with lower per captita
gross domestic product are called…
• Developing countries (LDC)
• Examples: China, India, Nigeria, Ethiopia,
Brazil.
What is an Ecological Footprint?
• Amount of biologically productive land and
water required to provide all of the resources
and absorb all of the pollution resulting from
processing, manufacturing, use and disposal
to support the lifestyle of a person, country,
state, etc.
Give examples of Ecological Services…
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pollination of agricultural crops
water purification and storage by aquifers
climate regulation
flood control
protection from UV radiation
nitrogen fixation
recreational activities
How is Carbon important in environmental
studies?
•
•
•
•
It is the backbone of biomolecules.
It is an ingredient of photosynthesis.
It is a greenhouse gas.
It is released during the burning of fossil fuels.
How is nitrogen important in environmental
studies?
• It is the building block of proteins and forms
the genetic code in DNA.
• It is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere
(78%).
• it is an important plant nutrient.
• Excess nitrogen runoff can lead to
eutrophication in aquatic habitats.
• Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas.
How is oxygen important to
environmental studies?
• It is the 2nd most abundant gas in the
atmosphere (21%).
• It is an ingredient of cellular respiration and a
waste product of photosynthesis.
How is phosphorus important in
environmental studies?
• It is an important plant nutrient.
• It is the limiting factor to plant growth in many
ecosystems.
• Excess runoff can lead to algae blooms and
eutrophication.
How is sulfur important in environmental
studies?
• Like phosphorus is part of a sedimentary
biogeochemical cycle.
• Volcanic eruptions are a natural source of
sulfur pollution in the air.
• Burning coal is an anthropogenic source of
sulfur pollution in the air.
• It mixes with rain water to become sulfuric
acid (acid rain).
How is pH important to environmental
studies?
• It is the amount of hydrogen ions dissolved
into solution.
• High and low pH damages living tissue.
• 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acid, more than 7 is
base.
How is radioactivity important in
environmental studies?
• Radiation can damage and destroy living cells.
• Half life is the time it takes for one half of a
radioactive sample to decay.
• It is an air, water and soil pollutant.
• It powers nuclear energy creating dangerous
radioactive waste which must be disposed of.
Open Environmental Systems…
• Exchange both energy and matter across their
boundaries.
• Most environmental systems are open.
• Ecosystems are an example.
Closed environmental systems…
• Systems that exchange energy but not matter.
• The global water cycle is an example.
Positive feedback loop…
• Decreasing vegetationleads to erosion and
nutrient losscausing more vegetation to die.
• An initial change is amplified leading to
further change and destabilization.
Negative feedback loop…
• House coolstemp reaches desired setting
and furnace turns onhouse
warmsreaches desired setting and furnace
shuts off.
• Initial change triggers other changes with
eventually stabilize the system.
Describe the levels of ecological organization.
• Biosphere- all the places on earth that can
support life.
• Biomes- a region characterized by a particular
geography, climate, flora and fauna.
• Ecosystem- a place and all of the biotic and
abiotic factors in that place.
• Community- all of the living things in an
ecosystem.
• Population- all of the living things of a particular
species in an ecosystem.
What three factors are required for life to exist
on Earth?
• One way flow of energy from the sun.
• Cycling of nutrients.
• The force of gravity.
What are the three parts of the Biosphere?
• Lithosphere- land
• Hydrosphere- water
• Atmosphere- air
What are the trophic levels found in a food
web?
• Producers- plants/autotrophs/produce their food
during photosynthesis
• Primary consumers- herbivores/heterotrophs/
get energy by eating producers
• Secondary consumers- primary carnivores/
heterotrophs/ eat primary consumers
• Tertiary consumers- secondary carnivores
• Quantanary consumers- tertiary carnivores
• Decomposter- feed off of waste and detritus from
the other levels.
H2O + CO2  C6H12O6 + O2
• Photosynthesis
Food + O2  ATP + CO2
• Cellular respiration
H2S + CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + H2SO4
• Chemosynthesis
1st law of thermodynamics…
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
2nd law of thermodynamics…
• Energy is changed into different forms
eventually being lost as heat.
10% rule…
• As energy moves up the food chain 90% is lost
to metabolism leaving 10% available for the
next trophic level.
• Biomass is the dry weight of living organisms
at a trophic level. Biomass = Energy.
Gross primary productivity…
• Rate at which primary producers convert solar
energy into chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
Net primary productively…
= gross primary productivity (photosynthesis) –
aerobic respiration (by plants)
High productivity ecosystems…
•
•
•
•
Tropical rain forests
Swamps
Marshes
Estuaries
Low productivity ecosystems…
• Deserts
• Tundra
• Open ocean
The movement of nutrients through biotic and
abiotic parts of an ecosystem…
• Biogeochemical cycles
• Nutrient cycles
• Examples: hydrological, nitrogen, carbon,
sulfur, phosphorus
Evaporation, Transporation, and Condensation
(precipitation) drive the…
• Hydrological cycle
• Human impact includes overuse due to
irrigation of crops, overpopulation, etc.
• Also flooding as the result of development
and deforestation.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration drive
the…
• Carbon cycle
• Human impacts include the burning of fossil
fuels which releases carbon dioxide and
monoxide as air pollutants.
• Also deforestation decreases carbon storage
biomass.
Bacterial decomposition, fixation, denitrification
and nitrification drive the…
• Nitrogen cycle
• Burning of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxide
contributing to smog and acid rain.
• Also excess nitrates from fertilizers and animal
waste can cause eutrophication in aquatic
environments
Weathering and erosion drives the…
• Phosphorus cycle
• Human impact includes excess runoff from
sewage, mining waste, and fertilizers leading
to eutrophication.
Volcanic activity, inaerobic respiration, and sea
spray drive the …
• Sulfur cycle
• The burning of fossil fuels releases sulfur
dioxide which contribute to acid rain.
The number of different species of organisms in
an ecosystem is called…
• Biodiversity.
• Biodiversity is the result of evolution.
• Adaptations occur in individuals which are
naturally selected to survive passing on these
traits to the rest of the population causing
evolution to occur.
When an entire species disappears from the
earth it is called…
• Extinction
• There have been 5 mass extinctions in Earth’s
history….we are causing the fifth.
Species that have a broad variety of food sources and
habitats and is at less risk of extinction…
• Generalist species
• Ex. Coyotes, cockroaches, humans
Species with a narrow number of food sources
and habitats that are more at risk of extinction…
• Specialist species
• Ex. Koala bears, Attwaters Prairie Chicken
Species that are introduced to a habitat and are able
to outcompete native species due to lack of predators
or improved adaptability…
• Invasive species
• Ex. Zebra mussel, water hyacinth
The disappearance of this species has a large
impact on an ecosystem…
• Keystone species
• Ex. Pollinators like bees and bats, predators
like alligators and sea otters.
Species which provide an early warning that
damage is occurring to an ecosystem…
• Indicator species
• Ex. song birds, amphibians
Members of two different species complete for
the same limited resources…
• Interspecific competition
• Ex. A thrush and bluebird compete for insects
in the same tree.
When members of different species form an
interdependent relationship…
• Symbiosis
• Parasitism- one benefits while the other is
harmed
• Commensalism- one benefits while the other
is uneffected
• Mutualism- both benefit
What is the Competitive Exclusion Principal?
• When two species occupy the same habitat
and their niches overlap significantly
resources will be limited. The one that is best
adapted will drive the other out or force them
to better adapt.
• If they share by utilizing resources in different
ways it is called Resource Partitioning. Hawks
and owl both eat mice but hunt at different
times.
The gradual change in species types and abundance
in a disrupted ecosystem over time …
• Ecological Succession
• Primary succession occurs in places where
things have not previously existed. Ex.
Volcanic islands
• Secondary succesion occurs in places where a
community previously existed. Ex. Abandoned
farm, burned forest.
The first group of organisms to occupy a
disrupted ecosystem…
• Pioneer community. Ex. Lichens, grasses,
insects.
• The final, stable community to occupy a
disrupted ecosystem?
• Climax community. Ex. Trees, deer, wolves.
Any factor that stops population growth…
• Limiting factor
• Limiting factors, like competition for
resources, that are effected by how many
organisms are present are called…
• Density dependent limiting factors.
• Limiting factors not effected by organism
numbers, due to natural disasters, are called…
• Density independent liming factors.
Population growth without limits…
• Exponential growth.
• Population growth that reflects limiting factors
is called… logistic growth.
Organisms which exhibit boom-bust rapid
population growth and decline…
• r-strategist
• Ex. Mosquitos, mice, etc.
Populations which exhibit steady growth and
decline…
• K-strategist
• Ex. Predators, elephants, deer.
The precipitation and temperature of a place
over a long period of time…
• climate
The current everyday atmospheric factors of a
place…
• weather
Factors that influence climate…
• Properties of air, water, and land- solar energy
creates evaporation transferring heat from the
oceans to the atmosphere creating convection
cells.
• Uneven heating of the Earth’s surface- creates
tropical, temperate, and polar regions.
• Rotation of the Earth- the Coriolis effect helps
create 6 large convection cells spreading from
equator to poles.
Trade winds off of South America weaken or shift
pushing warm water closer to the S.A. coast…
• El Nino
• Decreases nutrient upwelling and decreases
ocean productivity in the region.
• Causes flooding and drought in regions which
don’t normally experience these problems.
Weather pattern which cools coastal waters and
restores nutrient upwelling off of South America…
• La Nina
• Restores productivity and weather patterns
after El Nino years.
• May lead to more Atlantic hurricanes.
The blocking of Pacific moisture by the Sierra-Nevada
mountains leading to an dry, arid region east of the
mountains…
Rain shadow effect
Water, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides
trap heat in the form of infrared rays in the Earth’s
atmosphere keeping it warm enough to support life…
• Greenhouse effect
The highest productivity terrestrial biomes…
• Forests
• Tropical rain forest have the most biodiversity
because it is warm and wet all of the time.
Biomes where it is too dry to support forest and
too wet to be a desert…
• Grasslands
• Drought, fire, and grazers maintain the
grassland biome.
The driest and least productive terrestrial
biomes…
• Deserts
• Tropical deserts are the least biodiverse.
• The rain shadow effect on the leeward side of
mountain ranges often produce these
conditions.
Forest which experience seasons and lose their
leaves in the fall…
• Temperate Deciduous Forest
Cold region forest characterized by evergreen,
coniferous trees…
• Taiga (Boreal forest)
Grasslands characterized by permafrost which
prevents the growth of trees…
• Tundra
• Short, mild summers lead to lichen and grass
growth drawing in grazers and their predators.
Aquatic biomes are determined by…
• Salinity
• Light penetration
• Temperature
Areas covered with shallow freshwater most of
the time…
• Inland wetlands
• Includes swamps (trees), marshes (grass),
flood plains and bogs.
Why are wetlands important?
•
•
•
•
•
Natural recharge of groundwater.
Habitat
Nursery
Filter out toxins
Flood and erosion control
Freshwater, flowing life zones…
• Rivers
• The source zone includes cold, fast running,
clear headwaters.
• The transition zone waters flow slower and
are more meandering and sedimented.
• The coastal plain is twisting and slow moving
and empties into a lake or estuary.
Aquatic zones which contain sodium and other
elements collectively called saline…
• Salt water biomes
• Coastal zones are the most productive due to
light penetration.
• Estuaries are a mix of salt and fresh water, are
very productive and provide nurseries for many
species.
• The intertidal zone is difficult to live in because it
is covered with water sporadically.
• Open ocean and aphotic zone are least
productive because light does not penetrate to
the bottom.
Aquatic biomes with no salinity…
• Freshwater biomes
• Lakes are called Lentic zones and are depressions where
water drains and collects.
• Littoral zone is closest to shore and most productive.
• Limnetic zone away from shore recieves light and allows
the growth of phytoplankton.
• Profundal zone with little light and oxygen is low in
productivity
• The Benthic zone is dark and is habitat for decomposers.
• Oligotrophic lakes are newly formed and nutrient depleted,
as they age they increase in nutrients and productivity and
are called Eutrophic lakes.
Why should we protect biodiversity?
• Ecological services- produce oxygen, store
carbon, store water, remediate pollution,
recycle nutrients
• Economic roles- provide lumber, paper,
medicines, food, fuel.
What has caused declining
biodiversity? HIPPO
• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Invasive species out compete natives for
resources
• Population growth of humans
• Pollution alters and destroys habitats making
them unlivable
• Overhunting
What are the causes of habitat loss?
•
•
•
•
Urbanization
Agriculture
Poor fishing practices
Deforestation for lumber and agriculture
What is an example of an invasive
species?
• Zebra mussels have been accidently
introduced to lakes and alter habitat by
attaching to solid surfaces. They also damage
boats and other human structures.
• Water hyacinth covers the surface of
waterways blocking sunlight and altering
habitat. Also make the waterway unpassable
for boats.
When a species no longer exists in an
ecosystem…
• Biological extinction
When a species population has become so low
that there is extreme risk of it becoming extinct.
• Endangered species
• Threatened species are those whose
populations are declining and could become
endangered.
Organisms who eat a wide variety of foods and
live in a variety of palces and are very
adaptable…
• General niche- ex. coyotes
• Less susceptible to extinction
Organisms which eat a narrow variety
of food and live a narrow variety of
habitats…
• Specialized niche- ex. Koala
• These species are more susceptible to
extinction
What are the provisions of the
Endangered species Act?
• Identify and keep lists of endangered and
threatened species
• Protects habitat by blocking projects that
would alter habitat where endangered species
live.
• Levies fines for private property owners who
have effected endangered species.
• Only in the U.S.
What is the function of the CITES
treaty?
• Bans the selling, hunting, or capturing of
endangered species
• International treaty
A forest which has not been modified by human
activities or natural disaster…
• Old growth forest- highly diverse, lots of
inertia, not very resilient
Forests that are the result of secondary
succession due to human or natural disruption…
• Second growth forest- lack diversity, includes
tree plantations, forest destroyed by fire.
What are the causes of deforestation?
• Fuelwood
• Agricultural development
• Urban development
What are the types of logging
practices?
• Clear cutting removes all of the trees is
cheapest but does the most environmental
damage. Ex. Tree plantation
• Selective cutting removes mature trees and
leaves behind young trees to grow and
provide habitat. Most expensive, least
damaging.
• Strip cutting removes narrow strips of trees to
allow quick reseeding and growth.
What is a tree plantation?
• Areas that are clear cut and replanted on
rotation. They tend to be monocultures and
lack diversity so they are not high quality
habitat.
A beneficial fire that burns low and clears out
underbrush but does not destroy a forest…
• Surface fire
• Prescribed burns are set and managed
intentionally to provide the same benefits.
A damaging fire which results from a lack of
surface fire over a long period of time…
• Crown fire burns out the tops of the trees
killing the forest and the ecosystem.
• Can threaten human habitations, etc.
How has climate change effected
forest ecosystems?
• Frequent drought has weakened trees leading
to insect infestations. Ex, Pine bark beetles.
• Rising temperatures have increased diseases
such as Dutch elm and chestnut blight have
killed native trees.
Solutions for sustaining forests…
• Strip and selective cutting forestry methods
• Legal protection for old growth forest
• Government subsidies for sustainable forestry
methods
• Restoration of deforested lands
• Federal preserves like state and national parks
• Habitat corridors which allow animal
migration between preserves
What are rangelands?
• Large areas of grasslands which are historically
valuable as grazing land and farm land.
• Overgrazing and poor agricultural practices
threaten grassland ecosystems.
What are some ways to sustain
grasslands?
• Periodic fires keep invasive plants away.
• Rotational grazing allows time for the grasses
to come back and maintains the ecosystem for
other species
What are the threats to aquatic
ecosystems?
• Overharvesting/fishing. Bycatch includes fish that are
caught but not used and is putting a strain on species
diversity.
• Pollution from fertilizers, pesticides and industrial
processes.
• Climate change is altering sea temperatures changing
patterns and habitats. Warming temperatures have
made coral reefs susceptible to disease. The polar bear
is threatened because of melting sea ice.
• Invasive species are competing with native species for
resources.
What are the most populated
countries?
• China and India have over one billion people
each.
• The U. S. has 300 million and is third.
The average number of children born
to a woman in her lifetime…
• Total fertility rate
• Higher in developing countries because some
of them die in the first year, lack of child labor
laws makes it an advantage to have more
children.
The average number of children a couple must
have to replace themselves…
• Replacement-level fertility
• 2.1 in developed countries.
• Higher in developing countries due to a lack of
prenatal and postnatal care.
The number of babies out of every 1000 who die
before their 1st year is reached…
• Infant mortality rate
• Higher in developing countries because of lack
of medical care, sanitation and poor nutrition.
The number of births per 1000 people
in a population…
• Crude birth rate
• Higher in developing countries
The number of deaths per 1000
people in a population…
• Crude death rate
• Higher in developing countries
Migration of people into a country…
• Immigration
• The U.S. and Australia are the only countries
that allow open immigration.
The migration of people out of a
country…
• emigration
How do you calculate doubling time?
• 70 divided by the percent population growth
• Doubling time is useful in looking at a
countries population growth trends and
policies.
How are age structure diagrams
helpful?
• They can help determine the future growth or
decline of a population.
• Ex. Large numbers of females in the
reproductive and prereproductive stages
indicates rapid future population growth.
What are the stages of demographic
transition?
• Preindustrial stage- slow growth because of high
birth rate and high death rate.
• Transitional stage- rapid growth because of high birth
rate but slowing death rates.
• Industrial stage- growth slows due to dropping birth
and death rates.
• Postindustrial stage- growth levels off and drops due
to falling birth rates.
Ways to control population growth…
• Empower women- increase educational and
vocational opportunities for women.
• Demographic transition- as a country reaches
the later stages they reach zero population
growth.
• Planned Parenthood programs.
• Government incentives for having fewer
children.
What is the down side of demographic
transition?
• While it stabilizes population growth it
increases the per capita resource use of each
person. They use more resources.
What are the soil horizons and their
contents?
• O horizon- top layer of decomposing organic
matter.
• A horizon- zone of leaching. Topsoil containing
both organic matter and parent material and
nutrients are leached.
• B horizon- zone of accumulation. Subsoil
where parent material collects leached
nutrients from above.
• C horizon- rocky parent material
How do you determine soil quality
using texture?
• Determine the percentages of clay, silt, and
sand and apply it to a soil pyramid.
What is the best soil?
• Loamy which is a mixture of sand, silt, and
clay.
What are the plant macronutrients?
• Nitrogen
• Potassium
• Phosphorus- usually the limiting factor
because it is not available in large amounts for
plant uptake.
The technological advancment after WWII that
led to increased food production…
• The Green Revolution
• Included: high yield monoculture crops, large
inputs of inorganic fertilizer, heavy use of
pesticides, intensive irrigation.
Transplanting genes into plants with help it to
resist pests, fix nitrogen, etc. …
• GMO’s- genetically modified foods.
What are the major environmetnal
problems with agriculture?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Soil Erosion
Deforestation
Desertification
Soil salinization
Waterlogging
Fertilizer runoff
How do we prevent soil erosion?
• No till agricuture- no plowing to disturb the
soil
• Terracing hilly land
• Contour plowing
• Windbreaks using trees, etc.
The use of pesticides does not kill every member of the
population leaving behind resistant individuals…
• The Pesticide Treadmill
• This allows the pest populations to rebound
and requires the development of new
pesticides.
What are the benefits of using pesticides?
• Increases crop yield- provides supply for
demand
What are the problems with
pesticides?
• Damage to beneficial organisms in the soil
interrupting decomposition.
• Pesticide runoff effecting aquatic organisms.
• Pesticide residue effecting human health.
Pesticides which kill a large variety of
insects including benefitial ones…
• Broad Spectrum Pesticides- Chlorinated
hydrocarbons (DDT), Organophosphates
(malathion)
Pesticides which target only specific
insects…
• Narrow Spectrum Pesticides
What is involved in Integrated Pest
Management?
•
•
•
•
Use natural enemies of the pest
Crop rotation
Use of pheromones
Use of introduced sterilized individuals into
the population
• Limited use of Narrow Spectrum Pesticides.
The practice of farming aquatic
organisms for food…
• Aquaculture
• Freshwater: Carp, Tilapia, Catfish, Trout.
• Saltwater: seaweed, clams, crabs, Salmon,
Yellowtail.
Overfishing has become a major problem in many parts
of the world. What are the different types of
commercial fishing?
• Long line fishing- miles of line with baited hooks.
Bycatch is a problem.
• Purse seine fishing- a net surrounds large school
of Tuna and is closed at the ends. Catches
dolphins a bycatch.
• Drift-net fishing- a miles long curtain of net.
Bycatch includes many species including turtles
and dolphins.
• Trawler fishing- nets are dragged along the
bottom trawling up everything.