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APES Flashcard Review A resource that is not sustainable because it will be depleted before it can be replenished… • Non-renewable resource. • Examples: oil, coal, natural gas, copper, iron, gold. Sustainable resources that can be replenished before they are used up… • Renewable resources. • Examples: solar energy, wind energy, timber, water, fertile soil, fisheries. The practice of using a resource at a rate that is less than or equal to the rate that it is naturally replenished…. • Sustainability Describe the Tragedy of the Commons… • A resource that is free and available to everyone is overused and depleted as a result of shortsightedness. • Ex. Overfishing, overgrazing, aquifer depletion, etc. Relatively affluent countries with a high per capita gross domestic product (GDP) are called… • Developed countries (MDC) • Examples include the U.S., Canada, Japan and Australia. Less affluent countries with lower per captita gross domestic product are called… • Developing countries (LDC) • Examples: China, India, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Brazil. What is an Ecological Footprint? • Amount of biologically productive land and water required to provide all of the resources and absorb all of the pollution resulting from processing, manufacturing, use and disposal to support the lifestyle of a person, country, state, etc. Give examples of Ecological Services… • • • • • • • Pollination of agricultural crops water purification and storage by aquifers climate regulation flood control protection from UV radiation nitrogen fixation recreational activities How is Carbon important in environmental studies? • • • • It is the backbone of biomolecules. It is an ingredient of photosynthesis. It is a greenhouse gas. It is released during the burning of fossil fuels. How is nitrogen important in environmental studies? • It is the building block of proteins and forms the genetic code in DNA. • It is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere (78%). • it is an important plant nutrient. • Excess nitrogen runoff can lead to eutrophication in aquatic habitats. • Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas. How is oxygen important to environmental studies? • It is the 2nd most abundant gas in the atmosphere (21%). • It is an ingredient of cellular respiration and a waste product of photosynthesis. How is phosphorus important in environmental studies? • It is an important plant nutrient. • It is the limiting factor to plant growth in many ecosystems. • Excess runoff can lead to algae blooms and eutrophication. How is sulfur important in environmental studies? • Like phosphorus is part of a sedimentary biogeochemical cycle. • Volcanic eruptions are a natural source of sulfur pollution in the air. • Burning coal is an anthropogenic source of sulfur pollution in the air. • It mixes with rain water to become sulfuric acid (acid rain). How is pH important to environmental studies? • It is the amount of hydrogen ions dissolved into solution. • High and low pH damages living tissue. • 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acid, more than 7 is base. How is radioactivity important in environmental studies? • Radiation can damage and destroy living cells. • Half life is the time it takes for one half of a radioactive sample to decay. • It is an air, water and soil pollutant. • It powers nuclear energy creating dangerous radioactive waste which must be disposed of. Open Environmental Systems… • Exchange both energy and matter across their boundaries. • Most environmental systems are open. • Ecosystems are an example. Closed environmental systems… • Systems that exchange energy but not matter. • The global water cycle is an example. Positive feedback loop… • Decreasing vegetationleads to erosion and nutrient losscausing more vegetation to die. • An initial change is amplified leading to further change and destabilization. Negative feedback loop… • House coolstemp reaches desired setting and furnace turns onhouse warmsreaches desired setting and furnace shuts off. • Initial change triggers other changes with eventually stabilize the system. Describe the levels of ecological organization. • Biosphere- all the places on earth that can support life. • Biomes- a region characterized by a particular geography, climate, flora and fauna. • Ecosystem- a place and all of the biotic and abiotic factors in that place. • Community- all of the living things in an ecosystem. • Population- all of the living things of a particular species in an ecosystem. What three factors are required for life to exist on Earth? • One way flow of energy from the sun. • Cycling of nutrients. • The force of gravity. What are the three parts of the Biosphere? • Lithosphere- land • Hydrosphere- water • Atmosphere- air What are the trophic levels found in a food web? • Producers- plants/autotrophs/produce their food during photosynthesis • Primary consumers- herbivores/heterotrophs/ get energy by eating producers • Secondary consumers- primary carnivores/ heterotrophs/ eat primary consumers • Tertiary consumers- secondary carnivores • Quantanary consumers- tertiary carnivores • Decomposter- feed off of waste and detritus from the other levels. H2O + CO2 C6H12O6 + O2 • Photosynthesis Food + O2 ATP + CO2 • Cellular respiration H2S + CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + H2SO4 • Chemosynthesis 1st law of thermodynamics… • Energy cannot be created or destroyed. 2nd law of thermodynamics… • Energy is changed into different forms eventually being lost as heat. 10% rule… • As energy moves up the food chain 90% is lost to metabolism leaving 10% available for the next trophic level. • Biomass is the dry weight of living organisms at a trophic level. Biomass = Energy. Gross primary productivity… • Rate at which primary producers convert solar energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis. Net primary productively… = gross primary productivity (photosynthesis) – aerobic respiration (by plants) High productivity ecosystems… • • • • Tropical rain forests Swamps Marshes Estuaries Low productivity ecosystems… • Deserts • Tundra • Open ocean The movement of nutrients through biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem… • Biogeochemical cycles • Nutrient cycles • Examples: hydrological, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus Evaporation, Transporation, and Condensation (precipitation) drive the… • Hydrological cycle • Human impact includes overuse due to irrigation of crops, overpopulation, etc. • Also flooding as the result of development and deforestation. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration drive the… • Carbon cycle • Human impacts include the burning of fossil fuels which releases carbon dioxide and monoxide as air pollutants. • Also deforestation decreases carbon storage biomass. Bacterial decomposition, fixation, denitrification and nitrification drive the… • Nitrogen cycle • Burning of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxide contributing to smog and acid rain. • Also excess nitrates from fertilizers and animal waste can cause eutrophication in aquatic environments Weathering and erosion drives the… • Phosphorus cycle • Human impact includes excess runoff from sewage, mining waste, and fertilizers leading to eutrophication. Volcanic activity, inaerobic respiration, and sea spray drive the … • Sulfur cycle • The burning of fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide which contribute to acid rain. The number of different species of organisms in an ecosystem is called… • Biodiversity. • Biodiversity is the result of evolution. • Adaptations occur in individuals which are naturally selected to survive passing on these traits to the rest of the population causing evolution to occur. When an entire species disappears from the earth it is called… • Extinction • There have been 5 mass extinctions in Earth’s history….we are causing the fifth. Species that have a broad variety of food sources and habitats and is at less risk of extinction… • Generalist species • Ex. Coyotes, cockroaches, humans Species with a narrow number of food sources and habitats that are more at risk of extinction… • Specialist species • Ex. Koala bears, Attwaters Prairie Chicken Species that are introduced to a habitat and are able to outcompete native species due to lack of predators or improved adaptability… • Invasive species • Ex. Zebra mussel, water hyacinth The disappearance of this species has a large impact on an ecosystem… • Keystone species • Ex. Pollinators like bees and bats, predators like alligators and sea otters. Species which provide an early warning that damage is occurring to an ecosystem… • Indicator species • Ex. song birds, amphibians Members of two different species complete for the same limited resources… • Interspecific competition • Ex. A thrush and bluebird compete for insects in the same tree. When members of different species form an interdependent relationship… • Symbiosis • Parasitism- one benefits while the other is harmed • Commensalism- one benefits while the other is uneffected • Mutualism- both benefit What is the Competitive Exclusion Principal? • When two species occupy the same habitat and their niches overlap significantly resources will be limited. The one that is best adapted will drive the other out or force them to better adapt. • If they share by utilizing resources in different ways it is called Resource Partitioning. Hawks and owl both eat mice but hunt at different times. The gradual change in species types and abundance in a disrupted ecosystem over time … • Ecological Succession • Primary succession occurs in places where things have not previously existed. Ex. Volcanic islands • Secondary succesion occurs in places where a community previously existed. Ex. Abandoned farm, burned forest. The first group of organisms to occupy a disrupted ecosystem… • Pioneer community. Ex. Lichens, grasses, insects. • The final, stable community to occupy a disrupted ecosystem? • Climax community. Ex. Trees, deer, wolves. Any factor that stops population growth… • Limiting factor • Limiting factors, like competition for resources, that are effected by how many organisms are present are called… • Density dependent limiting factors. • Limiting factors not effected by organism numbers, due to natural disasters, are called… • Density independent liming factors. Population growth without limits… • Exponential growth. • Population growth that reflects limiting factors is called… logistic growth. Organisms which exhibit boom-bust rapid population growth and decline… • r-strategist • Ex. Mosquitos, mice, etc. Populations which exhibit steady growth and decline… • K-strategist • Ex. Predators, elephants, deer. The precipitation and temperature of a place over a long period of time… • climate The current everyday atmospheric factors of a place… • weather Factors that influence climate… • Properties of air, water, and land- solar energy creates evaporation transferring heat from the oceans to the atmosphere creating convection cells. • Uneven heating of the Earth’s surface- creates tropical, temperate, and polar regions. • Rotation of the Earth- the Coriolis effect helps create 6 large convection cells spreading from equator to poles. Trade winds off of South America weaken or shift pushing warm water closer to the S.A. coast… • El Nino • Decreases nutrient upwelling and decreases ocean productivity in the region. • Causes flooding and drought in regions which don’t normally experience these problems. Weather pattern which cools coastal waters and restores nutrient upwelling off of South America… • La Nina • Restores productivity and weather patterns after El Nino years. • May lead to more Atlantic hurricanes. The blocking of Pacific moisture by the Sierra-Nevada mountains leading to an dry, arid region east of the mountains… Rain shadow effect Water, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides trap heat in the form of infrared rays in the Earth’s atmosphere keeping it warm enough to support life… • Greenhouse effect The highest productivity terrestrial biomes… • Forests • Tropical rain forest have the most biodiversity because it is warm and wet all of the time. Biomes where it is too dry to support forest and too wet to be a desert… • Grasslands • Drought, fire, and grazers maintain the grassland biome. The driest and least productive terrestrial biomes… • Deserts • Tropical deserts are the least biodiverse. • The rain shadow effect on the leeward side of mountain ranges often produce these conditions. Forest which experience seasons and lose their leaves in the fall… • Temperate Deciduous Forest Cold region forest characterized by evergreen, coniferous trees… • Taiga (Boreal forest) Grasslands characterized by permafrost which prevents the growth of trees… • Tundra • Short, mild summers lead to lichen and grass growth drawing in grazers and their predators. Aquatic biomes are determined by… • Salinity • Light penetration • Temperature Areas covered with shallow freshwater most of the time… • Inland wetlands • Includes swamps (trees), marshes (grass), flood plains and bogs. Why are wetlands important? • • • • • Natural recharge of groundwater. Habitat Nursery Filter out toxins Flood and erosion control Freshwater, flowing life zones… • Rivers • The source zone includes cold, fast running, clear headwaters. • The transition zone waters flow slower and are more meandering and sedimented. • The coastal plain is twisting and slow moving and empties into a lake or estuary. Aquatic zones which contain sodium and other elements collectively called saline… • Salt water biomes • Coastal zones are the most productive due to light penetration. • Estuaries are a mix of salt and fresh water, are very productive and provide nurseries for many species. • The intertidal zone is difficult to live in because it is covered with water sporadically. • Open ocean and aphotic zone are least productive because light does not penetrate to the bottom. Aquatic biomes with no salinity… • Freshwater biomes • Lakes are called Lentic zones and are depressions where water drains and collects. • Littoral zone is closest to shore and most productive. • Limnetic zone away from shore recieves light and allows the growth of phytoplankton. • Profundal zone with little light and oxygen is low in productivity • The Benthic zone is dark and is habitat for decomposers. • Oligotrophic lakes are newly formed and nutrient depleted, as they age they increase in nutrients and productivity and are called Eutrophic lakes. Why should we protect biodiversity? • Ecological services- produce oxygen, store carbon, store water, remediate pollution, recycle nutrients • Economic roles- provide lumber, paper, medicines, food, fuel. What has caused declining biodiversity? HIPPO • Habitat loss and fragmentation • Invasive species out compete natives for resources • Population growth of humans • Pollution alters and destroys habitats making them unlivable • Overhunting What are the causes of habitat loss? • • • • Urbanization Agriculture Poor fishing practices Deforestation for lumber and agriculture What is an example of an invasive species? • Zebra mussels have been accidently introduced to lakes and alter habitat by attaching to solid surfaces. They also damage boats and other human structures. • Water hyacinth covers the surface of waterways blocking sunlight and altering habitat. Also make the waterway unpassable for boats. When a species no longer exists in an ecosystem… • Biological extinction When a species population has become so low that there is extreme risk of it becoming extinct. • Endangered species • Threatened species are those whose populations are declining and could become endangered. Organisms who eat a wide variety of foods and live in a variety of palces and are very adaptable… • General niche- ex. coyotes • Less susceptible to extinction Organisms which eat a narrow variety of food and live a narrow variety of habitats… • Specialized niche- ex. Koala • These species are more susceptible to extinction What are the provisions of the Endangered species Act? • Identify and keep lists of endangered and threatened species • Protects habitat by blocking projects that would alter habitat where endangered species live. • Levies fines for private property owners who have effected endangered species. • Only in the U.S. What is the function of the CITES treaty? • Bans the selling, hunting, or capturing of endangered species • International treaty A forest which has not been modified by human activities or natural disaster… • Old growth forest- highly diverse, lots of inertia, not very resilient Forests that are the result of secondary succession due to human or natural disruption… • Second growth forest- lack diversity, includes tree plantations, forest destroyed by fire. What are the causes of deforestation? • Fuelwood • Agricultural development • Urban development What are the types of logging practices? • Clear cutting removes all of the trees is cheapest but does the most environmental damage. Ex. Tree plantation • Selective cutting removes mature trees and leaves behind young trees to grow and provide habitat. Most expensive, least damaging. • Strip cutting removes narrow strips of trees to allow quick reseeding and growth. What is a tree plantation? • Areas that are clear cut and replanted on rotation. They tend to be monocultures and lack diversity so they are not high quality habitat. A beneficial fire that burns low and clears out underbrush but does not destroy a forest… • Surface fire • Prescribed burns are set and managed intentionally to provide the same benefits. A damaging fire which results from a lack of surface fire over a long period of time… • Crown fire burns out the tops of the trees killing the forest and the ecosystem. • Can threaten human habitations, etc. How has climate change effected forest ecosystems? • Frequent drought has weakened trees leading to insect infestations. Ex, Pine bark beetles. • Rising temperatures have increased diseases such as Dutch elm and chestnut blight have killed native trees. Solutions for sustaining forests… • Strip and selective cutting forestry methods • Legal protection for old growth forest • Government subsidies for sustainable forestry methods • Restoration of deforested lands • Federal preserves like state and national parks • Habitat corridors which allow animal migration between preserves What are rangelands? • Large areas of grasslands which are historically valuable as grazing land and farm land. • Overgrazing and poor agricultural practices threaten grassland ecosystems. What are some ways to sustain grasslands? • Periodic fires keep invasive plants away. • Rotational grazing allows time for the grasses to come back and maintains the ecosystem for other species What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems? • Overharvesting/fishing. Bycatch includes fish that are caught but not used and is putting a strain on species diversity. • Pollution from fertilizers, pesticides and industrial processes. • Climate change is altering sea temperatures changing patterns and habitats. Warming temperatures have made coral reefs susceptible to disease. The polar bear is threatened because of melting sea ice. • Invasive species are competing with native species for resources. What are the most populated countries? • China and India have over one billion people each. • The U. S. has 300 million and is third. The average number of children born to a woman in her lifetime… • Total fertility rate • Higher in developing countries because some of them die in the first year, lack of child labor laws makes it an advantage to have more children. The average number of children a couple must have to replace themselves… • Replacement-level fertility • 2.1 in developed countries. • Higher in developing countries due to a lack of prenatal and postnatal care. The number of babies out of every 1000 who die before their 1st year is reached… • Infant mortality rate • Higher in developing countries because of lack of medical care, sanitation and poor nutrition. The number of births per 1000 people in a population… • Crude birth rate • Higher in developing countries The number of deaths per 1000 people in a population… • Crude death rate • Higher in developing countries Migration of people into a country… • Immigration • The U.S. and Australia are the only countries that allow open immigration. The migration of people out of a country… • emigration How do you calculate doubling time? • 70 divided by the percent population growth • Doubling time is useful in looking at a countries population growth trends and policies. How are age structure diagrams helpful? • They can help determine the future growth or decline of a population. • Ex. Large numbers of females in the reproductive and prereproductive stages indicates rapid future population growth. What are the stages of demographic transition? • Preindustrial stage- slow growth because of high birth rate and high death rate. • Transitional stage- rapid growth because of high birth rate but slowing death rates. • Industrial stage- growth slows due to dropping birth and death rates. • Postindustrial stage- growth levels off and drops due to falling birth rates. Ways to control population growth… • Empower women- increase educational and vocational opportunities for women. • Demographic transition- as a country reaches the later stages they reach zero population growth. • Planned Parenthood programs. • Government incentives for having fewer children. What is the down side of demographic transition? • While it stabilizes population growth it increases the per capita resource use of each person. They use more resources. What are the soil horizons and their contents? • O horizon- top layer of decomposing organic matter. • A horizon- zone of leaching. Topsoil containing both organic matter and parent material and nutrients are leached. • B horizon- zone of accumulation. Subsoil where parent material collects leached nutrients from above. • C horizon- rocky parent material How do you determine soil quality using texture? • Determine the percentages of clay, silt, and sand and apply it to a soil pyramid. What is the best soil? • Loamy which is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay. What are the plant macronutrients? • Nitrogen • Potassium • Phosphorus- usually the limiting factor because it is not available in large amounts for plant uptake. The technological advancment after WWII that led to increased food production… • The Green Revolution • Included: high yield monoculture crops, large inputs of inorganic fertilizer, heavy use of pesticides, intensive irrigation. Transplanting genes into plants with help it to resist pests, fix nitrogen, etc. … • GMO’s- genetically modified foods. What are the major environmetnal problems with agriculture? • • • • • • Soil Erosion Deforestation Desertification Soil salinization Waterlogging Fertilizer runoff How do we prevent soil erosion? • No till agricuture- no plowing to disturb the soil • Terracing hilly land • Contour plowing • Windbreaks using trees, etc. The use of pesticides does not kill every member of the population leaving behind resistant individuals… • The Pesticide Treadmill • This allows the pest populations to rebound and requires the development of new pesticides. What are the benefits of using pesticides? • Increases crop yield- provides supply for demand What are the problems with pesticides? • Damage to beneficial organisms in the soil interrupting decomposition. • Pesticide runoff effecting aquatic organisms. • Pesticide residue effecting human health. Pesticides which kill a large variety of insects including benefitial ones… • Broad Spectrum Pesticides- Chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT), Organophosphates (malathion) Pesticides which target only specific insects… • Narrow Spectrum Pesticides What is involved in Integrated Pest Management? • • • • Use natural enemies of the pest Crop rotation Use of pheromones Use of introduced sterilized individuals into the population • Limited use of Narrow Spectrum Pesticides. The practice of farming aquatic organisms for food… • Aquaculture • Freshwater: Carp, Tilapia, Catfish, Trout. • Saltwater: seaweed, clams, crabs, Salmon, Yellowtail. Overfishing has become a major problem in many parts of the world. What are the different types of commercial fishing? • Long line fishing- miles of line with baited hooks. Bycatch is a problem. • Purse seine fishing- a net surrounds large school of Tuna and is closed at the ends. Catches dolphins a bycatch. • Drift-net fishing- a miles long curtain of net. Bycatch includes many species including turtles and dolphins. • Trawler fishing- nets are dragged along the bottom trawling up everything.