Download that Mary helped George

S YNTAX
I NTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, we moved from the
general categories and concepts of traditional
grammar, to more specific methods of describing
the structure of phrases and sentences.

In earlier approaches to syntax, there was an
attempt to produce an accurate description of the
sequence of ordering of elements in a sentence.

In more recent approaches, work in syntax
attempted to account for the type of agreement
we observe in the structure of sentences.
W HAT
IS SYNTAX ?

Syntax is the study of the structure and
components within a sentence.

That means that syntax deals with the
concept of what are acceptable sentential
arrangements in a language.

Syntax does not deal with meaning.
e.g. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
G ENERATIVE
GRAMMAR

Generative grammar was originated by
Noam Chomsky.

It deals with linguistic structure of a
language in mathematical terms.

Generative grammar defines the
syntactic structure of a language
CONT.,

Generative grammar proposes that a set
of explicit, finite rules that can produce all
(infinite) and only well formed sentences
in a language.

It reveals the basis of two other
phenomena:
1. Superficially different sentences but
closely related.
2. superficially similar sentences but actually
different.
D EEP AND SURFACE
STRUCTURES

Consider the following examples:
Charlie broke the window
The window was broken by Charlie
C ONT.,
surface structure
deep structure
the different syntactic
abstract level of
forms of sentences in
English
structural organization
in which elements
determining structural
interpretation are presented
S TRUCTURAL A MBIGUITY
Annie wacked a man with an umbrella

This is a structurally ambiguous sentence:
it has two distinct underlying interpretations that has
to represented differently in deep structure.

Try to guess these two meanings!

The grammar will have to be capable of showing the
structural distinction between these underlying
representations.
R ECURSION

Recursion means that we can use the same type of
rule (e.g. PP) with an endless number of words.
on the table
in the bag
at the door

We must also be able to put sentences inside
sentences:
Mary helped George
Kathy knew that Mary helped George
S YMBOLS USED IN SYNTACTIC
DESCRIPTION
1. Abbreviations of syntactic categories:
S
sentence
NP noun phrase
‘Consists of’
2.
NP
3.
4.
5.
etc..
Art N
( ) ‘ optional constituent’
Only one of the elements enclosed inside the
brackets must be selected.
Note: refer to the symbols on pgs. 89-90
T REE
DIAGRAMS
P HRASE
STRUCTURE
RULES

We can look at tree diagrams as a way to
generate a very large number of other sentences
with similar structures.

We can use phrase structure rules to represent
the information of the tree diagram in a different
way:
NP
Art
N
NP
Art N
M ORE ON PHRASE
STRUCTURE RULES

S
NP VP

NP

VP
V NP (PP) (Adv)

PP
Prep NP
{Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN)
L EXICAL
RULES

Phrase structure rules generate structures.

In order to turn this structure into recognizable English, we
also need lexical rules: Which words can be used in the
same spot.
PN
{Mary, George}
V
N
{girl, dog, boy}
Adj
{small, crazy}
Art
{a, the}
prep
{near, with}
Adv
{recently, yesterday}
Pro
{it, you}
{followed, helped, saw}
CONT.,
C OMPLEMENT
PHRASES
Cathy knew that Mary helped George

that= complementizer (C) = introducing
complement phrase (CP)

that Mary helped George= CP

CP
C S
“A complement phrase consists of a complementizer
and a sentence.”
CONT.,

From the same sentence, the CP comes after a V (knew)

This means that we are using the CP as part of a VP (knew
that Mary helped George).

Now, we have a new rule, “A verb phrase consists of a
verb and a complement phrase.”

or, VP
V CP
CONT.,
T RANSFORMATIONAL

RULES
Phrase structure rules represent ‘deep’ structurealways generate structures with fixed word order.
Mary saw George recently
Recently Mary saw George

Transformational rules= take a specific part and attach
it in another place
You will help Cathy
Will you help Cathy?
CONT.,
T IME
FOR EXERCISES !!
1.Draw a labeled tree diagram for the following
English phrases.
a. Stuffed chickens
b. in the dark night
c. Met a friend
CONT.,
2. Draw phrase structure trees for the following
sentences:

The puppy found the child

The ice melted

The hot sun melted the ice.

The house on the hill collapsed in the wind.

The boat sailed up the river.

A girl laughed at the monkey.

George saw a dog with Mary
CONT.,

In what way are these sentences ambiguous?

We met an English history teacher

Flying planes can be dangerous

The parents of the bride and groom were waiting
outside

The students complained to everyone that they
couldn’t understand.
Thank you!