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Perhaps more powerfully than in any of his previous plays, Shakespeare creates an intense sense of a
social universe; we feel and smell this Rome; we understand its values and the power exerted by its social
ethos on the main protagonist.
-- Vivian Thomas on Julius Caesar
Introducing the Drama
The Tragedy of Julius Caesar depicts Rome’s transition from a republic to an empire. According to
ancient historians, the republic dates back to 509 B.C., when the last Roman king was expelled and two
consuls shared control of Rome’s military. Each year a new pair of consuls had to be elected. The Senate
was the republic’s most important political institution. It was composed of several hundred members of
Rome’s leading families, who could serve for life. Two citizen assemblies made laws and elected Rome’s
magistrates, including consuls. Although the Senate was supposed only to advise the magistrates and the
assemblies, it actually held most of the power.
Over several centuries, Rome greatly expanded its territories in a series of foreign wars, but these
conquests created internal tensions. Some politicians began to challenge the Senate’s authority. Often
they gained support from disgruntled veterans and other neglected members of society. Beginning in 133
B.C., Rome was plagued by widespread corruption and civil warfare.
In 60 B.C., Rome came under the control of the wealthy politician Crassus and two military leaders,
Julius Caesar and Pompey. This coalition was known as the First Triumvirate. Crassus died in 53, and
soon Pompey and Caesar were at odds with each other. After Pompey tried to strip Caesar of his powers
in 49, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River into Italy, forcing Pompey to flee and beginning a civil war.
Pompey was killed the next year in Egypt. Caesar continued to meet resistance from Pompey’s sons. He
finally defeated them in 45 and returned to Rome, where he had himself appointed dictator for life.
Shakespeare’s play opens in 44 B.C., when it appeared that Caesar might topple the republic and
reestablish a monarchy.
The Julius Caesar of History
Julius Caesar was born in 100 B.C. He rose to prominence through military success and shrewd political
maneuverings. He became wealthy and famous from his conquest of Gaul, a territory in western Europe.
His books about the conquest and Rome’s civil wars are literary classics. Caesar gained complete control
of Rome by 45 B.C., having defeated Pompey and his supporters. He quickly introduced new policies,
such as reforming the Senate and extending Roman citizenship to residents of the provinces. He also
established a new calendar, which is still used today in a revised form. Although these changes benefited
many people, they angered members of the nobility, who also resented the loss of their power. A group of
conspirators killed Caesar in 44 B.C.
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Julius Caesar: ambitious military leader and politician; the most powerful man in Rome
Calphurnia: wife of Caesar
Marcus Brutus: friend of Caesar, appointed by him to high office in the Roman government; a believer
in the republic and member of the conspiracy against Caesar
Portia: wife of Brutus and daughter of a Roman patriot
Caius Cassius: brother-in-law of Brutus and member of the conspiracy against Caesar
Mark Antony: friend of Caesar, senator, and eloquent orator; member of the triumvirate, the three-man
governing body that ruled Rome after Caesar’s death
Octavius Caesar: Caesar’s great-nephew and official heir; member of the triumvirate
M. Aemilius Lepidus: military leader and member of the triumvirate
Conspirators Against Caesar
Casca
Metellus Cimber
Cinna
Decius Brutus
Trebonius
Caius Ligarius
Senators
Cicero
Publius
Popilius Lena
Tribunes (Public Officials)
Flavius
Murellus
Officers in the Armies of Brutus and Cassius
Lucilius
Messala
Titinius
Young Cato
Volumnius
Flavius
Servants of Brutus
Lucius
Varrus
Strato
Dardanius
Clitus
Claudio
Tertiary Characters:
A Soothsayer: one who predicts the future
Artemidorus of Cnidos: teacher of rhetoric
Cinna: a poet who is mistaken for Cinna the conspirator
Pindarus: a servant of Cassius
Second Poet
Servants to Caesar, Antony, and Octavius; Citizens, Guards, and Soldiers
Hint: Keep this sheet out for easy reference while reading the play to keep the many characters straight.
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Did You Know?
In Act 1, Julius Caesar attends the feast of Lupercal, held yearly to honor a fertility god. It began with the
sacrifice of goats and a dog at the Lupercal, a cave where Rome’s legendary founders, Romulus and
Remus, allegedly were nursed by a she-wolf. Young men called “Luperci” would dress themselves in the
goatskins and run around the Palatine Hill, one of the seven hills on which ancient Rome was built. They
carried goat thongs that they used to strike people, especially women who could not have children. The
ritual was said to help women become fertile. The Romans celebrated dozens of religious festivals, many
involving games or spectacles. These events provided amusement for the poor and gave leaders an
opportunity to interact with the people.
Shakespeare’s Soliloquies
In Shakespeare’s plays, characters sometimes make speeches when they are alone on stage. These
soliloquies reveal a character’s private thoughts and are a means of providing important information to
the audience. In Act 1, Scene 2, Cassius delivers a soliloquy that reveals a plot to influence Brutus to
participate in the conspiracy to overthrow Caesar. It involves sending letters to Brutus that express the
Romans’ high regard for him. Related to soliloquies are asides – comments made to the audience that
cannot be heard by other characters present on stage. These asides appear in brackets. As you continue to
read, look for other soliloquies and asides that impart important information to the audience.
ANALYZING LITERATURE
1. How do Flavius and Murellus respond when they meet commoners who are celebrating Caesar’s
triumph? What elicits this response?
2. What is Cassius’s impression of Caesar in Scene 2? To what extent does Brutus agree with him?
3. What happens when Antony offers Caesar a crown? How does the crowd respond to Caesar’s actions?
4. Describe Cassius and Casca’s reactions to the storm. What do their reactions reveal about their
characters?
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5. What action does Cassius take to win Brutus over? Why is it important for him to gain Brutus’s
support?
6. Do you think that Cassius’s assessment of Caesar is fair? Why or why not?
7. Did Caesar really not want to be crowned king, or was his refusal a ploy to win the public’s
allegiance? Why or why not?
8. Thus far, which character in the play is best suited for leadership? Cite evidence to support your
opinion.
Did You Know?
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Marcus Brutus claimed to have descended from the founder of the Roman Republic. In 509 B.C., Lucius
Junius Brutus led a revolt against Tarquinius Superbus, Rome’s seventh king. Ancient historians describe
Tarquinius as a tyrant who killed many senators. Brutus supposedly expelled him and his family after
Tarquinius’s son took advantage of a noblewoman. Brutus, one of the first consuls elected, made the
Roman people swear never to accept another king. Much of the story may be legend, but it does reflect
the Romans’ long-standing dislike of kings. Even the emperors avoided using the title.
ANALYZING LITERATURE
1. How does Brutus justify the plot against Caesar? What does this justification suggest about Brutus’s
values?
2. Why does Brutus want to spare Antony’s life? What is his opinion of Antony?
3. How does Portia convince Brutus to disclose his secret to her? What is your impression of their
relationship?
4. Why is Calphurnia afraid to let Caesar go to the Senate House? Does Caesar seem to share her fear?
Explain.
5. What arguments does Decius make to change Caesar’s mind? Which of Caesar’s personality traits
make him vulnerable to Decius’s arguments?
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6. Which of the two appears to have the better understanding of human nature, Brutus or Cassius?
Explain.
7. Which three events in Act 2 serve to increase the level of suspense in the play? How?
8. Shakespeare introduces Portia and Calphurnia in Act 2. How are these two women alike? How are
they different? What do their relationships with their husbands reveal about Brutus and Caesar?
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Did You Know?
Shakespeare based The Tragedy of Julius Caesar on an English translation of Parallel Lives by the Greek
writer Plutarch. This work contains paired biographies of Greek and Roman historical figures, including
Caesar, Brutus, Antony, and Cicero. Plutarch was especially interested in his subjects’ character and
motives. In the play, Shakespeare generally followed Plutarch’s portrayal of the historical figures, but he
did make subtle changes. For example, Antony’s magnificent public speech in Act 3 is mainly
Shakespeare’s creation.
Irony in The Tragedy of Julius Caesar
This play contains examples of the three types of irony. Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or
reader knows something that a character does not know. Situational irony occurs when what actually
happens is the opposite of what is expected or appropriate. Verbal irony occurs when a writer or speaker
says one thing but really means its opposite. As you read, look for examples of all three types of irony.
ANALYZING LITERATURE
1. Describe Caesar’s response to the request to pardon Publius Cimber. Why did the conspirators make
the request at that time?
2. What surprises Caesar most when he is attacked? Why is it so surprising to him?
3. How does Antony behave toward the conspirators immediately after Caesar’s murder? What
motivates his behavior?
4. Why does Brutus allow Antony to speak at Caesar’s funeral? What assumption does he make about
Antony?
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5. How does the crowd react to Brutus’s and Antony’s funeral speeches? What do these reactions suggest
about the people in the crowd?
6. What does Cassius’s attempt to dissuade Brutus from letting Antony speak at Caesar’s funeral imply?
What purpose does this warning serve in advancing the plot?
7. In Antony’s eulogy to Caesar, he repeats the refrain that “Brutus is an honorable man.” Of what
literary device is this an example of? Why is its use effective?
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Did You Know?
Antony used Caesar’s will as a tool to manipulate the public. Yet the will was a mixed blessing for him.
Instead of naming Antony heir, Caesar chose Octavius, his great-nephew. The two men could hardly have
been more different: Antony, a gregarious and imposing general, and Octavius, a delicate nineteen-yearold. The senators, led by Cicero, supported Octavius. Cicero did not join in the conspiracy, but he
approved of Caesar’s assassination and called for Antony’s death also. Octavius turned out to be a shrewd
politician. When the senators later turned against Octavius, he joined Antony and Lepidus. The alliance
split control of Rome’s territory in three ways. To pay off troops, they confiscated the estates of many
senators and knights, beginning a reign of terror in which thousands perished. Octavius later became
Rome’s first emperor and assumed the name Augustus.
Tragedy and the Tragic Hero
A tragedy is a drama in which the main character, or tragic hero, suffers a downfall. Traditionally, the
hero is a person of high rank. His or her downfall usually results from an error in judgment or a fatal
weakness or flaw, such as excessive ambition. Critics have long debated whether Julius Caesar or Brutus
is the tragic hero of Shakespeare’s play. Although Caesar is the title character, he appears in only a few
scenes and is killed in Act 3, the middle of the play.
ANALYZING LITERATURE
1. Why do Brutus and Cassius quarrel in Act 4? In your opinion, who is more at fault?
2. How do the battle plans of Cassius and Brutus differ? What does Cassius’s yielding to Brutus’s
judgment suggest about Cassius’s character?
3. What beliefs does Cassius express to Messala before the battle? How might this belief have
influenced Cassius’s later decision to take his own life?
4. What supernatural experience does Brutus have in Sardis and Philippi? How does he interpret these
experiences?
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5. How do Antony and Octavius respond to Brutus’s death at the end of the play? Why might they have
responded that way?
6. Is the play mistitled, and should it have been called “The Tragedy of Brutus”? What is the most
compelling argument for why the play is titled as it is?
7. What attributes of Brutus’s character made the outcome of the play inevitable?
REVIEWING THE PLAY
1. Discuss the play’s strengths and weaknesses. How well did Shakespeare organize his plot? Are the
characters vivid and believable? Is the dialogue interesting? Support your analysis with quotations
from the play and references to specific scenes.
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For each of the following characters, write at least four attributes, or characteristics in the first column
that they have demonstrated over the course of the play. In the second column, write down the text quotes
that prove the attributes, or characteristics, you have listed. In the third column, write down the act, scene,
and line numbers of your text quote.
Julius Caesar
Attributes
Text Quotes (evidence)
Act, Scene, Line
Mark Antony
Attributes
Text Quotes (evidence)
Act, Scene, Line
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Marcus Brutus
Attributes
Text Quotes (evidence)
Act, Scene, Line
Caius Cassius
Attributes
Text Quotes (evidence)
Act, Scene, Line
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Included on the test:
Multiple choice, Quote Identification, Quote Explication, Short Answer, and Essay
You should be familiar with the following characters, basic events, and significant themes:
Main Characters –
Julius Caesar
Calphurnia
Marcus Brutus
Portia
Caius Cassius
Mark Antony
Octavius Caesar
Basic Events – use the Scene Sorting on the following pages to review the order and events of the play.
Significant Themes –
What qualities make a good leader?
What is more important – friendship, or the public good?
How can power or ambition corrupt a good man?
Finally, be prepared to answer the following question –
Who is the play really about – Julius Caesar or Marcus Brutus?
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Act 1, Scene 1
____ The men agree to go tear down decorations in honor of Caesar.
____ Two tribunes encounter two celebrating plebians.
____ The tribunes rebuke the men for forgetting about Pompey.
Act 1, Scene 2
____ Brutus hears shouts and trumpets and fears Caesar has become king.
____ Cassius reveals his plan to toss anonymous notes into Brutus’s house.
____ Caesar warns Marc Antony that men like Cassius are very dangerous.
____ Brutus says he’ll think over what Cassius has said.
____ Caesar is warned by a soothsayer for the first time.
____ Casca fills Brutus and Cassius in on the crown offered three times to Caesar.
____ Caesar asks Marc Antony to try and ‘tag’ Calpurnia during his race.
____ Cassius begins his manipulation of Brutus by asking lots of nosy questions.
Act 1, Scene 3
____ Cinna agrees to deliver a few more letters to Brutus’s house.
____ Cassius also meets Casca in the storm and reveals his out ‘testing the gods’.
____ Cassius convinces Casca to join the conspiracy.
____ Cicero and Casca meet on the street during a thunderstorm and discuss strange omens.
____ Cinna arrives to tell Cassius that others are awaiting his arrival at a meeting.
Act 2, Scene 1
____ The men discuss who of Caesar’s friends should also die; they decide just Caesar.
____ Brutus promises to tell Portia all about his thoughts.
____ Brutus awakes and expresses concern about Brutus.
____Cassius arrives to talk to Brutus about making up his mind.
____The men wonder if Caesar will show up in the Senate, and agree to go and bring him.
____ Ligarius arrives to go with Brutus to the Senate and joins the group of conspirators.
____Brutus is up during the middle of the night, due to insomnia and worry.
____Other men arrive to show a united group of conspirators.
Act 2, Scene 2
____ Decius, a conspirator, arrives to fetch Caesar to the Senate.
____ Calpurnia begs Caesar not to go to the Senate.
____ Calpurnia tells Caesar about all the omens and her dreams.
____ Decius reinterprets Calpurnia’s dreams.
____ The other conspirators and Marc Antony arrive to walk to the Senate with Caesar.
____ Caesar is awakened by Calpurnia’s nightmares in the early hours of March 15th.
____ Decius seems reluctant to deliver a message that Caesar won’t be coming.
____ Caesar tells Calpurnia he doesn’t fear his death – only cowards fear death, but agrees to stay home.
Act 2, Scene 3
____ Artemidorus tells his plans to give a warming note to Caesar as soon as he sees him.
____ Artemidorus reads aloud his warning to Caesar.
Act 2, Scene 4
____ Portia encounters the Soothsayer outside, where he reveals his plans to speak to Caesar again.
____ Portia is worried about what is going to happen in the Senate.
____ Portia sends her servant to find out what is going on in the Senate.
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Act 3, Scene 1
____ Casca attacks and stabs Caesar.
____ Caesar arrives at the Senate with others on March 15th.
____ Marc Antony sends a servant to request his safe passage to speak to the conspirators.
____ Antony pretends to understand the justification and obtains permission to speak at the funeral.
____ Artemidorus approaches Caesar with a note and is forced away from him.
____ Brutus and the rest of the conspirators attack Caesar.
____ Marc Antony is distracted away from Caesar by Trebonius.
____ Caesar begins to hear petitions in the Senate.
____ Several conspirators make a show of pleading for the rights of Publius Cimber.
____ The conspirators proclaim freedom to Rome.
____ The men decide to wash their hands in Caesar’s blood to show unity.
____ Antony gives a soliloquy over the corpse of Caesar.
____ Caesar sees and dismisses the Soothsayer.
____ Cassius objects to Antony speaking at the funeral.
____ Antony arrives and is told the conspirators’ reasons for killing Caesar.
____ A servant arrives and helps Antony carry Caesar’s body away.
____ Brutus says he will speak first at the funeral.
Act 3, Scene 2
____ Antony says ‘if I were Brutus, I could really stir you up and convince you to mutiny.’
____ Outraged citizens confront Brutus about the death of Caesar.
____ Brutus gives his funeral speech.
____ Antony gives his funeral speech: “Friends, Romans, Countrymen…”
____ The citizens begin to change their minds about Caesar’s death.
____ Antony lets it ‘slip’ that Caesar’s will names the commoners as his heirs.
____ The citizens shift sides back to Caesar.
____ Antony displays Caesar’s wounds to the crowd.
____ The citizens go crazy and plan to burn Caesar’s body and get the murderers.
____ Antony learns that Octavius and Lepidus are in Rome at Caesar’s house.
____ Brutus leaves Antony to give his speech over Caesar’s body.
____ The citizens decide it was right to kill Caesar.
Act 2, Scene 3
____ Cinna encounters a group of citizens.
____ Cinna the Poet discusses a dream he had about eating with Caesar.
____ The mob tears an innocent man to pieces.
____ The armed mob of citizens mistakes Cinna the poet for the Cinna who is a conspirator.
Act 4, Scene 1
____ Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, the new Triumvirate, meet to discuss which Senators to execute.
____ Ocatvius and Antony agree that they will be the ones in charge, and give Lepidus limited power.
____ Antony express his objectsion to Lepidus as a leader.
Act 4, Scene 2
____ Cassius arrives, and begins to start a public argument.
____ Brutus is camped near Sardis, Greece.
____ Brutus insists they speak privately.
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Act 4, Scene3
____ Messala arrives with news from Rome; Cicero is dead along with almost 100 senators.
____ Brutus has an encounter with Caesar’s ghost.
____ Brutus says Cassius is greedy and lacks honor.
____ Brutus and Cassius make their peace.
____ The men disagree over whether to attack or to let Antony and Octavius come to them to fight.
____ Brutus has a servant plan music for him, until the servant falls asleep.
____ Brutus asks the servants if they heard or saw anything.
____ Cassius is angered that Brutus should reprimand him for taking bribes from condemned men.
____ Finally alone for the night, Brutus reflects on the argument and can’t sleep.
____ Brutus reveals that Portia has killed herself. She became insane and swallowed hot coals.
____ Cassius plays the guild card of his ‘love’ for Brutus and even offers his life to Brutus.
____ Brutus is told he will “see Caesar at Philippi.”
Act 5, Scene 1
____ On the plains of Philippi, Octavius and Antony are ready to battle.
____ Brutus and Cassius bid one another farewell and lead their armies to fight Antony and Octavius.
____ The opposing sides meet and talk. Insults fly both ways.
Act 5, Scene 2
Brutus charges with his forces too early, causing a problem in the battle.
Act 5, Scene 3
____ Titinius returns with good news and finds Cassius dead.
____ Messala goes to get Brutus with news of Cassius’ death.
____ Cassius is forced to retreat because Antony is in close pursuit.
____ Pindarus is confused in what he sees and says Titinius is captured by the enemy.
____ Brutus and Messala arrive to find both Cassius and Titinius dead.
____ Brutus orders the bodies be sent away to await their funerals so it won’t upset the troops.
____ Cassius sends Titinius to scout and has Pindarus watch his progress.
____ Titinius, in grief, gives Cassius his crown of victory, and then kills himself.
____ Cassius assumes he will be captured next and has Pindarus stab him.
Act 5, Scene 4
____ Antony spares Lucilius’s life.
____ Lucilius tells Antony they’ll never take Brutus alive.
____ Lucilius is captured and tries to bribe Antony’s troops.
Act 5, Scene 5
____ Octavius orders a full funeral for Brutus as a respected Roman soldier.
____ Antony approaches. Everyone runs but Brutus and Strato.
____ Brutus and four other defeated men are in retreat.
____ Octavius and Antony arrive with their captives and find Brutus dead.
____ Antony declares Brutus the ‘nobles Roman of them all’.
____ Brutus asks Volumnius to kill him.
____ Brutus convinces Strato to hold Brutus’s sword so he can run upon it.
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