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Synopsis
Marketing Communications
1. Introduction to Marketing Communications
Learning Objectives
The aims of this introductory module are to explore some of the concepts associated with
marketing communications and to develop an appreciation of the key characteristics of the
main tools of the communications mix.
The objectives of this module are to:
 examine the concept of exchange in the marketing context;
 assess the role of promotion in the context of the marketing mix;
 consider the range and potential impact of marketing communications;
 identify the key characteristics of each major tool in the communications mix;
 examine the effectiveness of each communication tool;
 establish a need for marketing communications;
 compare marketing communications in the consumer and business markets.
Sections
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
Introduction
The Concept of Marketing as an Exchange
The Role of Communication in Exchange Transactions
Marketing Communications and the Process of Exchange
Defining Marketing Communications
The Role of Marketing Communications
The Marketing Communications Mix
Effectiveness of the Promotional Tools
Selection Criteria
Management of the Promotional Tools
Context and Marketing Communications
Communication Differences
Learning Summary
The concept of exchange transactions is seen by many commentators as underpinning the
marketing concept. Of the different types of exchange, market and relational are the two that
can be observed most often in industrial societies.
Marketing communications have various roles to play in the context of both these types
of exchange, but – as will be seen later in this text – there is a strong movement away from
the reliance on market exchanges to the longer-term perspective that relational exchanges
enjoy, and to the development of partnerships. This approach is referred to as ‘relationship
marketing’, and it is here that changes in the use and deployment of marketing communications can be best observed.
Marketing communications is an audience-centred activity and uses five traditional elements
of the promotional mix: advertising, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing, and
personal selling. Each has its strengths and weaknesses, and these tools are now beginning to
be used in different ways to develop relationships with customers, whether they be consumers
or organisational buyers. An example of these changes is the use of the Internet, a communication medium that has grown rapidly since the mid-1990s and is threatening to reconfigure the
way both marketing and marketing communications are practised.
Marketing communications have an important role to play in communicating and promoting products and services not only to consumers but also to the business-to-business
sector and to other organisations representing differing stakeholders. The development of
partnerships between brands and consumers, and between organisations within distribution
channels or networks, is an important perspective of marketing communications. Communications in this context will be an important part of this text.
Finally, marketing communications can be seen as a series of episodes that occur within a
particular set of circumstances or contexts. Marketing managers need to be able to identify
principal characteristics of the context they are faced with and contribute to the context with
a suitable promotional programme.
2. Communication Theory
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to introduce communication theory and to set it in the context
of marketing communications.
The objectives of this module are to:
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understand the basic model of the communication process;
appreciate how the components of the model contribute to successful communications;
provide an analysis of the linkages between components;
examine the impact of the media on the communication process;
examine the impact of personal influences on the communication process;
introduce more recent explanations of communication theory, including networks;
explain how communication theory underpins our understanding of marketing communications.
Sections
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
An Introduction to the Communication Process
Linear Model of Communication
Influences of the Communication Process
Word-of-Mouth Communications
Process of Adoption
Process of Diffusion
Interactional Approaches to Communications
2.8
2.9
Relational or Contextual Approaches to Communications
Network Approaches to Communications
Learning Summary
An appreciation of the way in which communication works is important to understanding
and developing planned communications. The classic approach to communication views the
process as linear, similar to the actions of a hypodermic syringe injecting its audience with
information. Here the sender–message–channel– receiver approach is prevalent. Subsequent
models have attempted to reflect the two-way perspective, and to account for the interpersonal components of communications, which in themselves stress mutuality and shared
perceptions (Windahl et al., 1992).
The linear approach is not rejected, as there are circumstances where a one-way transmission of information is required, such as a flood warning by the National Rivers Authority or
the announcement that a product specification has been altered to meet new legislative
requirements. However, in the context of developing relational exchanges (Module 1), the
network approach to communications is both justified and compatible. Individuals are seen
to engage in patterned flows of communication that partly reflect the diversity of their
interests.
This text recognises the importance of the linear and interactional approaches to communication, but uses the concept of communication networks, a contextual perspective, to
explore marketing communications.
3. Understanding How Consumers Process Information
Learning Objectives
The aim of this module is to provide an introduction to the main elements of buyer
information-processing, in order that readers may develop an appreciation of the way
marketing communications can be built on an understanding of buyer behaviour.
The objectives of this module are to:
 introduce cognitive theory as an important element in the development of planned
communications;
 examine personality as a main factor in the determination of successful communications;
 explore perception in the context of marketing communications;
 understand the main differences between conditioning and cognitive learning processes;
 appraise the role of attitudes and the different ways in which attitudes are thought to be
developed;
 appreciate the importance of understanding an individual’s intention to act in a particular
way and its part in the decision process;
 understand how marketing communications can be used to influence these elements of
buyer behaviour and in particular to change attitudes;
 provide a brief overview of the other environmental influences that affect the manner in
which individuals process information.
Sections
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Introduction
Cognitive Theory
Personality
Perception
Marketing and Perception
Learning
Attitudes
Changing Attitudes with Marketing Communications
Learning Summary
This module has reviewed some of the recent and current thinking about how individuals
process information. Cognitive theory provides a valuable insight into the manner in which
buyers use externally and internally generated stimuli to solve problems. Personality,
perception, learning, attitudes and aspects pertinent to the wider environment and each
purchase situation have been considered as major elements of the problem-solving approach
adopted by both consumers and organisational buyers.
Marketing communication planners need to be aware of these elements and to understand how they operate in the target audience. Messages can be created to match the
cognitive needs of the intended audience and change, for example, perception or attitudes, in
such a way that communication with the target audience is likely to be more successful.
4. Customer Decision-Making
Learning Objectives
The aim of this module is to consider some of the different processes that consumers and
organisational buyers use to make purchase decisions.
The objectives of this module are to:
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present a general process for purchase decision-making;
examine the sequence and methods used by consumers to make decisions;
explore the components of perceived risk;
introduce and explain involvement theory and relate it to planned communication
activities;
 consider the different types of individual who contribute to purchase decisions made by
organisations;
 understand the stages that organisations use to make purchase decisions;
 appreciate the differences in approaches and content of marketing communications
between consumer and organisational buying.
Sections
4.1
4.2
Introduction
A General Buying Decision-Making Process
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Types of Consumer Decision-Making
Perceived Risk
Involvement Theory
Hedonic Consumption
Consumer Decision-Making Processes
Organisational Buying Decision Processes
Unifying Models of Buyer Decision-Making
Learning Summary
The processes that buyers use to make purchase decisions differ according to a variety of
factors. These vary with the nature of the purchase situation: that is, whether the purchase is
oriented to consumer or organisational buying, and the depth of experience held by the
buyer. Other factors concerned are the levels of perceived risk, involvement, knowledge and
the number of others who are contributing to the final outcome.
Some of the decision processes that have been presented in this module appear to be
linear and based upon logic and reason. This is not the case, as decisions are often the result
of experience, knowledge and an interpretative view of the environment. Therefore the
decision processes used by buyers are not always sequential, nor do they reflect a rational
approach to resolving problems and needs.
Marketing communications need to be based on an understanding of the decision processes used by buyers in the targeted market. This means that the content and style of
messages and the form of delivery by the tools of the promotional mix (Modules 14–17) can
be dovetailed closely into the needs of the receivers. This also demonstrates how the realm
of understanding is an important issue in effective communications.
5. How Marketing Communications Might Work
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to consider some of the theoretical concepts associated with
ideas about how marketing communications might work, and to consider the complexities
associated with understanding how clients can best use marketing communications.
The objectives of this module are to:
 explore some of the fundamental ideas about the role of marketing communications;
 examine the strengths and weaknesses of the sequential models of how marketing
communications works;
 explain cognitive processing as a means of understanding how people use marketing
communications messages;
 discuss the contribution that the elaboration likelihood model can make to comprehending how motivation and attitude change can be brought together;
 consider the concept of significant value;
 present a composite model of how marketing communications might work.
Sections
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Introduction
Context – Strategy and Marketing Communications
The Emergence of Marketing Communications
The Role of Marketing Communications
How Does Marketing Communications Work?
Cognitive Processing
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Interaction, Dialogue and Relationships
Developing Significant Value
Towards a Model of Marketing Communications
Learning Summary
Over time a variety of models have been developed, each of which has attempted to explain
how advertising works. AIDA and sequential models, such as the hierarchy of effects
approach, were for a long time the received wisdom in this area. Now they are regarded as
quaint and out of date, for a number of hard-hitting reasons.
The developing interest in integrated marketing communications, and in particular the
complementary influence of brand values with calls to action and behaviour change, has
stimulated a move away from an advertising-only perspective. Developments concerning
cognitive processing, feelings, likeability and elaboration enable a broader perspective on
marketing communications as a whole to be achieved. At the same time many writers have
become sceptical of advertising’s power to persuade consumers to change their purchasing
habits, USPs have given way to ESPs, and industry and commerce have shifted the focus of
their marketing spend away from above- towards below-the-line activities, as if to emphasise
the need to affect behavioural change. Therefore understanding the way marketing communications works, rather than just the way advertising works, is now more important.
We now understand that marketing communication messages tend to be more successful
when they are of particular significance to each individual. When significant they are of
value: hence the need to generate messages that are of significant value to the target
audience. To be significantly valuable, messages should present a new product or a product
that is substantially different from the other products in the category, should be interesting
and stimulating, and should be personally meaningful.
Reality suggests that the majority of marketing communication messages cannot claim to
be of significant value to most people. Those messages that are of value are normally
dissected so that only parts of the message are extracted and stored for future use. Messages
or extracts of messages can be recalled or released from long-term memory when triggered
by an association, such as new incoming messages or experiences with a particular brand.
Marketing communication messages and brands should be regarded as complementary
elements that need to work together if marketing communications and their respective
brands are to be successful.
6. Marketing Communications: Strategies and Planning
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to explore the nature of strategy, and of marketing communications strategies in particular. The goal is to familiarise readers with the elements and
concepts associated with marketing communications strategy and planning, and to introduce
the marketing communications planning framework.
The objectives of this module are to:
 introduce the notion of marketing communications strategy as a separate concept from
marketing communications plans;
 consider three main marketing communications strategies: pull, push and profile;
 examine involvement as a basis for developing promotional strategies;
 consider the different elements involved in marketing communications plans;
 highlight the linkages and interaction between the different elements of the plan;
 present a framework for the development of marketing communications plans.
Sections
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
Introduction
Understanding Strategy
Market Segmentation
The 3Ps of Marketing Communications Strategy
Strategic Balance
Internet Strategies
Developing a Marketing Communications Plan
The Marketing Communications Planning Framework
A Framework For Integrated Marketing Communications Plans
Links and Essential Points
Learning Summary
The development of a marketing communications strategy is important if an organisation is
to communicate effectively with its various target audiences. Unlike planning, which is an
articulation of strategy, marketing communications needs to be rooted in its target audiences
and the task that needs to be completed.
Push, pull and profile strategies can be combined in different ways to meet the needs of
different communication tasks. In addition to the broad target, it is important to express
strategy in terms of the differentiation (positioning), reminding/reassuring, informing and
persuading of audiences.
The marketing communications planning framework offers a sequential format for the
development of marketing communications plans. In real life such plans are developed in
parallel and involve the various individuals and stakeholders to varying degrees. The
framework presented here is practical and robust, yet the linear approach should not be
accepted without question.
Communications strategy is about the direction and coordination of messages to specific
audiences. It is about the delivery of timely, accurate messages that are of significant value
for their recipients.
7. Marketing Communications: Objectives and Positioning
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to establish the nature and importance of the role that objectives
play in the formulation of promotional strategies and to explore the concept of positioning.
The objectives of this module are to:
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examine the need for organisational objectives;
set out the different types of organisational goal;
specify the relationship between corporate strategy and promotional objectives;
determine the components of promotional objectives;
examine the differences between sales-based and communication-based objectives;
evaluate the concept of positioning;
explore the technique of perceptual mapping;
understand and determine various positioning strategies.
Sections
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
Introduction
The Role of Objectives in Corporate Strategy
The Role of Promotional Objectives and Plans
Derivation of Promotional Objectives
The Need for Realism when Setting Promotional Objectives
SMART Objectives
Positioning: An Introduction
The Development of the Positioning Concept
The Positioning Concept
Developing and Managing a Position
Positioning Strategies
Repositioning
Learning Summary
The use of objectives in the management process is clearly vital if the organisation’s desired
outcomes are to be achieved. Each of the objectives, at corporate, unit and functional levels,
contributes to the formulation of the promotional objectives. They are all interlinked,
interdependent, multiple, and often conflicting.
The major task for the promotional objectives is twofold: first, to contribute to the overall direction of the organisation by fulfilling the communication requirements of the
marketing mix; second, to communicate the corporate thrust to various stakeholders so that
they understand the focus of the organisation and can respond to its intentions.
Promotional objectives are derived from an initial review of the current situation and the
marketing plan requirements. They are not a replication of the marketing objectives but a
distillation of the research activities that have been undertaken subsequently. Such objectives
consist of two main elements: sales oriented and communication oriented. A balance
between the two will be determined by the situation facing the organisation, but may be a
mixture of product and corporate tasks. These objectives, once quantified, need to be ranked
and weighted in order that other components of the plan can be developed.
Part of the information generated at the research stage informs how buyers and stakeholders position the offering relative to the other players in the target market and how the
product itself is perceived. This aspect of the management process is very important, as the
communications undertaken by the organisation help to shape the context in which
individuals place the offering (or the organisation). The way in which an organisation decides
to position itself and/or its offerings determines the form, intensity and nature of the
messages transmitted through the promotional mix.
8. Branding and the Role of Marketing Communications
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to explore the nature and characteristics of branding and to
identify the way in which marketing communications can be used to develop and maintain
brands that are of significance to their respective target audiences.
The objectives of this module are to:
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introduce and explore the nature of branding;
examine the common characteristics of brands;
determine the benefits to both buyers and owners of brands;
identify the different types of brand and the relationships they can have with the parent
organisation;
 appreciate the strategic importance of brands;
 understand the contribution of and the way in which marketing communications can be
used to build and support brands;
 appraise the nature and significance of brand equity.
Sections
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
Introduction
Brand Characteristics
Benefits of Branding
Brand Portfolios: Architecture and Forms
The Strategic Role of Branding
The Role of Marketing Communications in Branding
Business-To-Business Branding
Online Branding
Brand Equity
Learning Summary
Branding provides customers with a quick and easy way of understanding what a product is
and what value it represents. It can represent a measure of psychosocial reassurance.
Branding provides manufacturers and distributors with a means of differentiating their
products in order to gain competitive advantage in such a way that customers perceive added
value. This allows for premium pricing, and the improved margin can be used to invest in
new opportunities for commercial initiatives through, for example, innovation or improved
levels of customer service.
Marketing communications has an important role to play in brand development and
maintenance. In many circumstances advertising is used to develop strong brands. To help
customers make associations with brands either a rational, information-based approach
might be adopted or alternatively a more emotional relationship might be forged, one based
more on imagery and feelings.
In many cases the opportunity to use advertising is restricted, and many smaller and b2b
organisations need to rely on a below-the-line approach. In these circumstances the brand
name is important, because it needs to symbolise or convey meaning about the functionality
of the brand. In addition, merchandising, packaging and other POP elements will be
prominent in brand development.
There are many other factors that can influence the development of brands. Co-branding,
geographic signals and award symbols can impact on brand associations so that ultimately
risk is reduced, trust is enhanced, and there is sufficient confidence to purchase the brand on
a regular basis.
Branding is a key strategic communication issue and not only affects FMCG products but
is increasingly used by b2b organisations as a means of differentiation and added value.
9. Corporate Identity, Reputation and Branding
Learning Objectives
The aim of this module is to consider those communications that are designed to encourage
a dialogue with stakeholders, with a view to influencing the image and reputation of the
organisation.
The objectives of this module are to:
 introduce the notion of corporate communications and profile strategies;
 appraise the term ‘corporate image’ and the associated concepts corporate personality,
identity and reputation;
 consider the characteristics of corporate identity and corporate branding;
 explore methods of evaluating corporate image;
 examine the relationship between corporate identity and strategic management;
 introduce a framework incorporating corporate identity with the process of strategic
management.
Sections
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
Introduction
Corporate Identity or Corporate Branding?
Corporate Communications
Dimensions of Corporate Image
Elements of Corporate Identity
Corporate Reputation
Strategy and Corporate Identity/Image
Learning Summary
Communications strategies need to encompass the communication needs of all those
stakeholders and constituencies that might influence the organisation or be influenced by it.
These approaches are referred to as the profile strategy, and so complete the 3Ps for
communication: push, pull and profile.
Profile strategies are essentially concerned with communication about the organisation
itself rather than its products and/or services. The focus rests with the corporate body: who
it is, what it is, what it is seeking to do and how it is important to other stakeholders.
At the root of this strategic approach is the notion of corporate identity. Organisations
project themselves (as they want to be seen/understood) through a series of cues. These are
then interpreted by stakeholders and used to create an image of the organisation. This
corporate image may or may not be a correct interpretation of the organisation, but this
perception is an important one and must be treated seriously. Reputations over time are
developed from the image, and can be seen to feed back to the corporate personality and
impact upon the way members of an organisation think about themselves and determine
what is central, distinctive and enduring.
Profile strategies are an important part of communication strategy, and should be regarded as an integral part of any total or integrated marketing communications approach that
might be developed.
10. Financial Resources for Marketing Communications
Learning Objectives
The aim of this module is to examine the financial context within which organisations
undertake promotional campaigns.
The objectives of this module are to:
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determine current trends in advertising and promotional expenditure;
discuss the role of the promotional budget;
clarify the benefits of using promotional budgets;
examine various budgeting techniques, both practical and theoretical;
provide an appreciation of the advertising-to-sales (A/S) ratio;
set out the principles where share of voice (SOV) can be used as a strategically competitive tool.
Sections
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
10.15
Introduction
Trends in Promotional Expenditure
The Role of the Promotional Budget
Benefits of Budgeting
Difficulties Associated with Budgeting for Communications Spend
Models of Appropriation
Techniques and Approaches
Competitive Parity
Advertising-To-Sales Ratio
Share of Voice
Appropriation Brand Types
The Value of Brand Communications
Profit Impact on Market Strategy (PIMS)
Which Methods Are Most Used?
Budgeting for the Other Elements of the Promotional Mix
Learning Summary
The task of assigning financial resources to an organisation’s marketing communications is
difficult and imprecise, and as yet there is no one method that can be used on a prescriptive
basis. Theoretically, the task can be understood and resources allocated easily. Unfortunately,
the quality and availability of information required to use marginal analysis are poor, and
practitioners have to rely on other methods. These other methods range from the simplistic
(‘This is what I think we should spend’) to the more complex analysis associated with the
spend incurred by competitors and the relationship of share of voice to market share that
some believe is operable in certain market conditions, or purchased database information
such as PIMS.
The decision to invest in marketing communications is a difficult one. This is because the
direct outcomes are intangible and often distant, as the advertising effects are digested by
potential buyers until such time as they are prepared and ready to purchase.
The methods presented in this module represent some of the more commonly used
techniques. No one method is sufficient, and two or three approaches to the investment
decision are required if management is to make decisions with any accuracy or confidence.
Some commentators (e.g. Buzzell et al., 1990; Jones, 1990) suggest that the actual amounts
invested by some organisations are larger than is necessary. The consequence is that there is
wastage and inefficiency, which contributes to a dilution of the profits that brands generate.
Management has to make a trade-off between investing and growing the brand to secure a
position, and relaxing the promotional investment and harvesting some profit, perhaps as a
reward for the previous investment activity.
11. Evaluating Marketing Communications
Learning Objectives
The aim of this module is to review the ways in which marketing communications activities
can be evaluated.
The objectives of this module are to:
 discuss the role of evaluation as part of marketing communications;
 explore the value and methods of pre-testing and post-testing advertisements;
 provide an insight into the value of qualitative and quantitative testing techniques;
 appreciate the role that technology plays in the assessment and evaluation of advertising;
 examine ways in which sales promotions can be evaluated;
 present the methods used to evaluate direct marketing;
 discuss the techniques and approaches used to measure and evaluate public relations;
 explore the ways in which personal selling activities can be measured;
 consider some of the issues associated with evaluating the effectiveness of online
communications.
Sections
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
Introduction
The Role of Evaluation in Planned Communications
Pre-Testing Finished Advertisements
Physiological Measures
Post-Testing
Other Tests
Sales Promotion
Using Technology to Evaluate Sales Promotions
Public Relations
Sponsorship
Personal Selling
Online Communications
Learning Summary
The evaluation of a marketing communications plan, once implemented, is an essential part
of the total system. The evaluation provides a potentially rich source of material for the next
campaign and the ongoing communications that all organisations operate, either intentionally
or not.
The degree to which the promotional objectives set for a campaign (Module 7) have been
achieved has to be the focus of the evaluation process. The next important factor is the
measurement of the contribution that each part of the marketing communications mix may
have made. Again, this can be determined from a holistic perspective, or it can be usefully
explored by employing some of the particular techniques and methods outlined in this
module.
It would appear that, should resources be made available and should management appreciate the importance of measuring the effectiveness of their investment in marketing
communications, then testing before and after exposure to each campaign activity is
advisable, in order that a degree of change can be determined. Although pre- and posttesting is normally an advertising-related approach, the principle can be applied across all the
tools of the mix, to some extent.
There are many issues involved with the assessment of each of the tools of the promotional mix, some associated with their individual characteristics. There is no perfect or ideal
technique, but research must be undertaken if the communication performance of an
offering is to be built or maintained. An important question is why so many managers
choose not to measure effectiveness. The immediate answer is that all managers do measure
the effectiveness as demonstrated through their observation of the sales results at the end of
each period. However, proper testing and analysis is a practice rejected for many reasons. A
prevalent reason are that research uses resources that some managers would prefer to sink
into the product, to build sales or to build market awareness.
There can be disagreement about what is to be researched, on the grounds that the many
people associated with a campaign have different needs, and as the budget is restricted the
net result is that there is no research. Others argue that as it is very difficult, if not impossible, to isolate the effects of one particular tool, there is no point in wasting resources on
testing.
All these points can and should be refuted. Only by attempting to measure effectiveness
will our understanding improve, leading to a more effective utilisation and more efficient use
of marketing communications. Sales measurement is used most commonly because it is
relatively cheap to administer and quick to implement, and to many managers sales and
profits are derived from communications (and advertising in particular), so this constitutes
the only meaningful measure.
12. Advertising and Strategy
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to explore the different views about advertising strategy and to
consider the complexities associated with understanding how clients can best use advertising.
The objectives of this module are to:
 consider the role that advertising plays in both consumer and business-to-business
markets;
 introduce the principal frameworks by which advertising is thought to influence
individuals;
 appraise the strong and weak theories of advertising;
 present the alphabetical model of advertising;
 evaluate the FCB grid as a tool for strategy development;
 use the Rossiter–Percy grid as a means of creating strategic direction.
Sections
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Role of Advertising
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
Emotion in Advertising
Advertising Models and Concepts
The Strong and Weak Theories of Advertising
Using Advertising Strategically
Advertising to Engage
Learning Summary
A variety of models have been developed in an attempt to explain how advertising works. In
addition some of these models have attempted to develop a strategic perspective for this
mass communications tool. AIDA and the various sequential models, such as the hierarchy
of effects approach, have now given way to new views of how advertising works.
Advertising, once considered the prime form of mass persuasion, is now subject to many
different views. Those who are sceptical of advertising’s power to persuade consumers to
change their purchasing habits now explore ideas concerning advertising’s strategic role in
reinforcing brand messages and repositioning brands. The strong theory of advertising
reflects the persuasion concept, and has high credibility when used with new brands.
However, the contrasting view is that advertising should be regarded as a means of defending customers’ purchase decisions and for protecting markets, not building them. Reality
suggests that most advertising cannot claim to be of significant value to most people, and
that the strong and the weak theories are equally applicable but not at the same time and not
in the same context.
The FCB and Rossiter–Percy grids represent formalised attempts to interpret the strategic
use of advertising. Intended to provide agencies with a method that might ensure consistency, meaning and value with respect to their client’s brands, these are no longer considered by
agencies to be sufficiently flexible, rigorous or representative of how contemporary advertising performs.
A more current perspective of advertising strategy suggests that advertising should become more engaged with the customer’s experience of the brand and not be rooted just in
the development of brand values.
13. Advertising Messages and Creative Approaches
Learning Objectives
The aim of this module is to consider some of the ways in which advertising messages can
be created, by focusing on some of the principal aspects of message construction and
presentation.
The objectives of this module are to:
 show how messages can be constructed to account for the context in which they are to
be received;
 examine the importance and characteristics of using source credibility;
 examine the use of emotions and feelings in advertising messages;
 explore the advantages and disadvantages of using spokespersons in message presentation;
 consider how advertising messages might be best presented;
 suggest how informational and transformational motives can be used as tactical tools in
an advertising plan.
Sections
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
Introduction
Message Source
Message Balance
Message Structure
Message Presentation
Advertising Tactics
Learning Summary
Advertising has an important role to play in most promotional plans. It is used primarily to
build awareness and to usher in the other tools of the mix. The tasks that advertising is
expected to achieve will have been set out in the promotional objectives, and they will
require communication with target consumers and organisational buyers.
Advertising is normally regarded as a tool that can persuade and change the behaviour of
individuals, but there are a growing number of researchers who believe that its prime use is
to defend loyal customers from the attacks of competitor products, by reinforcing attitudes.
The design and assembly of advertising messages is crucially important. Through establishment of a good realm of understanding, messages can be created in such a way that they
stand a far greater opportunity of building a dialogue between members of the target
audience and the brand. By appreciating the underlying emotions of the target buyer and the
motivations that drive attitudes and purchase intentions, the balance and the pattern they
assume can be shaped in such a way that they lead to effective advertising.
Figure 1.1
Message tactics where there are high involvement and transformational
motives
Source: Based on Rossiter and Percy (1997), used with kind permission.
Figure 1.2
Message tactics where there are low involvement and informational
motives
Source: Based on Rossiter and Percy (1997), used with kind permission.
Figure 1.3
Message tactics where there are low involvement and transformational
motives
Source: Based on Rossiter and Percy (1997), used with kind permission.
14. Media Behaviour and Planning: Delivering The Message
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to introduce the fundamental elements of media planning and
to set out some of the issues facing media planners.
The objectives of this module are to:
 consider various theories concerning the content of different media and related mediaswitching behaviours;
 explain the role of the media planner and highlight the impact of media and audience
fragmentation;
 examine the key concepts used in media selection: reach and cover, frequency, duplication, rating points and CPT;
 appreciate the concept of repetition and the debate concerning effective
frequency and recency planning;
 understand the concepts of effectiveness and efficiency when applied to media selection
decisions;
 introduce media source effects as an important factor in the selection and timing of
advertising in magazines and television programmes;
 explore the different ways in which advertisements can be scheduled.
Sections
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
Introduction
Media-Switching Behaviour
Vehicle Selection
Media Planning Concepts
Effective Frequency
Recency Planning
Media Usage and Attitudes
Efficiency
Media Source Effects
Scheduling
Learning Summary
The task of buying the time or space in media vehicles in order that an advertising message
may be carried to a target audience appears seductively straightforward. It is not. It is
complicated by several factors, ranging from the size and dispersion of the target audience to
the increasing number and variety of available media. These factors are referred to as
audience and media fragmentation, which bring both benefits to and difficulties for media
planners and advertisers. For example, it is easier to target more specialised and compact
target audiences using new and specialised media. However, audience profiles are changing
rapidly, and there is little control information about these audiences that allows advertising
funds to be allocated ‘properly’ (Mueller-Heumann, 1992).
Another major difficulty, increasing in its importance, is the question of how many times
a message must be repeated before an impression, awareness or learning occurs. The search
for effective frequency continues, particularly by product class. However, it is generally
accepted that three exposures are necessary as a minimum and ten as a maximum.
Decisions regarding the media cannot be made in isolation from the qualitative factors
associated with each vehicle. Known as vehicle source effects, these are concerned with the
quality of the vehicle in terms of its atmosphere, technical aspects and audience/product fit.
The final task concerns the timing or scheduling of advertisements. As with most things
in life, timing is of the essence. Scheduling calls for subjectivity and, although there are
numerous quantitative measures to assist decision-making, media planning is essentially
about management making judgements about where best to place its client’s messages to
maximise their effectiveness and the efficiency of the spend.
15. Sales Promotion
Learning Objectives
The aim of this part of the module is to consider the nature and role of sales promotion, and
to appraise its position within the marketing communications mix.
The objectives of this module are to:
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explain the role of sales promotion in the promotional mix;
discuss the reasons for the increased use of sales promotions;
examine the way in which sales promotions are considered to work;
appraise the value of this promotional tool;
discuss the nature of loyalty programmes, and issues associated with customer retention;
appreciate how sales promotions can be used strategically;
examine the sales promotion techniques used by manufacturers and resellers;
clarify the particular objectives sales promotions seek to satisfy.
Sections
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11
15.12
15.13
Introduction
Understanding the Value of Sales Promotions
The Role of Sales Promotion
Sales Promotion Plans: The Objectives
An Overview of How Sales Promotions Work
Loyalty and Retention Programmes
The Strategic Use of Sales Promotions
Methods and Techniques
Sales Promotions: Manufacturers to Resellers
Sales Promotions: Resellers to Consumers
Sales Promotions: Manufacturers to Consumers
Sales Promotions: The Salesforce
Other Sales Promotion Aids
Learning Summary
Sales promotions now command the lion’s share of the promotional budget. This is because
it has been proved that they are very effective as a communication tool with consumers,
members of the performance network, and the salesforce. The range of techniques and
methods used to add value to offerings is enormous, but there are growing doubts about the
effectiveness and profitability of some sales promotions.
In comparison with advertising and public relations, many of the sales promotion techniques are easier to evaluate, if only because the number of variables is smaller and they are
easier to isolate. Having said this, there is a lack of effective sales promotion measurement
and control. This often leads to a short-term focus. Retailers are in the same position, except
for the evaluation on a pre- and post-test basis of their own-brand promotions. Store traffic,
sales volume and consumer attitude studies prevail.
Sales promotions have a strategic role to play, particularly when they are used to complement the other activities in the promotional mix. By attempting to develop a consistent
theme for a promotional plan, sales promotions can follow advertising’s awareness-building
activities with a series of messages that continue the theme already established. Success is
much more likely when consumers are invited to take advantage of a promotion for a
product that they are not only aware of but have raised consciousness as a result of recent
promotional messages.
The range of techniques and methods used to add value to offerings is enormous, but
there are growing doubts about the effectiveness and profitability associated with some sales
promotions.
Sales promotions used by manufacturers to communicate with resellers are aimed at
encouraging resellers either to try new products or to purchase more of the ones they
currently stock. To do this, trade allowances, in various guises, are the principal means.
Sales promotions used by resellers (largely retailers) to influence consumers are normally
driven by manufacturers, although some price deals and other techniques are used to
generate store traffic. Most sales promotions are used by manufacturers to influence
consumers. Again, the main tasks are to encourage trial or increase product purchase. A
range of techniques, from sampling and coupons to premiums, contests and sweepstakes, are
used, with varying levels of success, but there has been a distinct shift away from traditional
promotional instruments to the use of digital media in order to reflect consumers’ preferences and media behaviour.
16. Public Relations and Sponsorship
Learning Objectives
The aim of this part of the module is to explore public relations in the context of promoting
organisations and their products.
The objectives of this module are to:
 discuss the role of public relations in the communications mix;
 clarify the differences between corporate public relations and marketing public relations;
 highlight the main audiences to whom public relations activities are directed;
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provide an overview of some of the main tools used by public relations;
appreciate the development and significance of corporate advertising;
examine the nature and context of crisis management;
determine the manner in which public relations complements the other tools of the
promotional mix.
understand the reasons why sponsorship has become an important part of the promotional mix;
provide an insight into the main characteristics of this form of communication;
consider where sponsorship may best be placed in the promotional mix;
explore ways in which sponsorship can be best evaluated.
Sections
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16.10
16.11
16.12
16.13
16.14
16.15
16.16
16.17
16.18
16.19
16.20
Introduction
Characteristics of Public Relations
Publics or Stakeholders?
A Framework of Public Relations
Corporate Public Relations and Marketing Public Relations
Objectives of a Public Relations Plan
Cause-related Marketing
Public Relations Methods and Techniques
Lobbying
Corporate Advertising
Crisis Management
Crisis for Online Brands
Integration of Public Relations in the Promotional Mix
Sponsorship
The Growth and Development of Sponsorship
Sponsorship Objectives
How Sponsorship Might Work
Theoretical Aspects of Sponsorship
Types of Sponsorship
The Role of Sponsorship in the Promotional Mix
Learning Summary
Public relations, whether oriented primarily to product support or to the development of
corporate goodwill, plays an important role within the communications mix. According to
Haywood (1991), public relations can support marketing in various ways, from improving
awareness and projecting credibility to creating direct sales leads and motivating the
salesforce and members of the performance network. However, public relations is now
recognised as a communication discipline that can develop and maintain a portfolio of
relationships with a range of key stakeholder audiences.
By providing all stakeholders with cues by which they can develop an image of an organisation, public relations enables organisations to position themselves and provide
stakeholders with a means of identifying and understanding an organisation. This may be
accomplished inadvertently through inaction or deliberately through a planned presentation
of a variety of cues. These range from publicity through press releases to the manner in
which customers are treated, products perform, events are managed and expectations are
met.
Finally, the area referred to as crisis communications management has grown in significance during recent years. Public relations plays an important role in preparing for and
constraining the impact of a crisis and re-establishing an organisation once a crisis has
passed.
By creating campaigns targeted at individual stakeholders, or at least identifying the needs
of the performance network as separate from those of the support network, the effects
intended at the outset can be measured at the close of different campaigns.
Sponsorship of events, activities and organisations will continue to grow in significance, if
only because of its effectiveness and value as a tool of marketing communications relative to
the other tools in the mix. Organisations believe that sponsorship allows them access to
specific target audiences and enhances their corporate image (Marshall and Cook, 1992).
Other areas will become subject to sponsorship, such as the development of television
programme sponsorship (for example the weather forecasts by Portman Building Society on
Meridian and Tulip Computers on Sky).
There seems little doubt that the introduction of new products and brands can be assisted
by the use of appropriate sponsorship. Indeed, it appears that sponsorship, in certain
contexts, can be used to prepare markets for the arrival and penetration of new brands.
The evaluation of sponsorship arrangements poses a problem, in that measurement is
little better than that used for advertising. However, the impact and approach that sponsorship can have suggest that the two tools should be used together, coordinated, if not
integrated, to develop awareness and strong brand associations and triggers. There is a
warning, and that concerns the degree to which sponsorship is capable of changing purchase
behaviour through persuasion. Organisations considering the use of sponsorship as a means
of directly impacting upon the bottom line are likely to be disappointed. Other tools are
required to stimulate behaviour; sponsorship alone is not capable of persuading target
audiences to behave differently.
17. Direct Marketing
Learning Objectives
The aims of this module are to explore the characteristics of direct marketing, and to
develop an understanding of interactive marketing communications.
The objectives of this module are to:
 introduce and define direct marketing;
 consider the reasons behind the growth and development of this new marketing
communications tool;
 examine the relationship of direct brands and direct response media and their role within
the marketing communications mix;
 appreciate the significance of the database in direct marketing;
 identify and consider different direct response media;
 consider the value of integrating the activities of direct marketing with other elements of
the mix.
Sections
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9
Introduction
The Role of Direct Marketing
Types of Direct Brand
The Growth of Direct Marketing
The Role of the Database
Direct Response Media
Integration and Direct Marketing
Supporting the Salesforce
Multichannel Selling
Learning Summary
Direct marketing has become an established communications discipline. The various ways in
which direct marketing can be used are proliferating, mainly as a result of developments in
technology. Direct marketing uses direct response media based on database support, and
permits the generation and feedback of messages with individual customers. The overarching objectives are to build and sustain a mutually rewarding relationship with each customer,
to reduce media costs, and to improve effectiveness and measurement.
The use of direct marketing has grown considerably in recent years and will undoubtedly
continue to grow as new efficiency and effectiveness measures are developed. For some
organisations their whole marketing approach has been built around the direct concept (e.g.
First Direct in financial services), whereas for others the approach has been used to
complement their use of the other tools in the promotional mix. Direct marketing will not
replace mass-media-based communications, but it is likely that an increasing proportion of
marketing budgets will move towards direct communication activities.
18. Internal Marketing Communications
Learning Objectives
The aim of this module is to examine the context of internal marketing and how such issues
might impact on an organisation’s overall marketing communications.
The objectives of this module are to:
 introduce the notion of internal marketing;
 understand the significance of organisational issues when developing marketing
communication strategies;
 introduce the notion of organisational identity and the impact that employees can bring
to the way that organisations are perceived by members and non-members;
 examine the impact of corporate culture on planned communications;
 provide an insight into the notion of strategic credibility and stakeholder
perception of the focus organisation;
 appreciate the interaction and importance of corporate strategy to planned communications;
 examine how communication audits can assist the development of effective marketing
communications;
 introduce ideas concerning the intellectual and emotional engagement of employees.
Sections
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
Introduction
Member/Non-member Boundaries
Purpose of Internal Marketing
Organisational Identity
Brand Engagement
Advertising and the Impact on Employees
Strategic Credibility
Communications Audit
Learning Summary
Intra-organisational issues need to be appreciated when building a communications plan.
One of the key factors to be considered is the corporate strategy, including the degree to
which it is understood by stakeholders and the credibility that management has to manage
strategic processes.
A major influence on the communication style is the prevailing culture. Culture is a reflection of the personality of the organisation, which in turn affects the corporate identity or
the way in which an organisation presents itself to its stakeholders. This presentation of
visual cues can be managed deliberately or left unattended. Either way, stakeholders develop
a picture of the organisation that enables them to position it among others. This corporate
image may well be an accurate interpretation of the real organisation. However, it may be
inaccurate, in which case marketing communications needs to address the problem and
narrow the gap between reality and image.