Download Triple Science Physics P1,2,3

Triple Science
Physics
P1, P2 and P3
Core Questions and Keywords and Definitions
P1 Core Questions
Describe how to measure the focal length of the lens.
Explain what the eyepiece lens does.
Describe the image the student sees when he looks through
the lens.
A ray of light changes direction when it enters a converging
lens, what is this called?
How does the eyepiece on a simple telescope work?
What do waves transfer?
What is the difference between a real and a virtual image?
What changes when light enters a denser material?
What is the difference between the geocentric and the
heliocentric models of the universe?
Explain how Galileo's observations supported the
heliocentric model of the solar system
What do light waves transfer?
State an example of a longitudinal wave.
Give examples of transverse waves
Describe what happens to particles in longitudinal waves
Describe what happens to particles in transverse waves
Describe the motion of particles in a material when this
ultrasound wave passes through.
What is the frequency of a wave and what is it measured in?
What is the wavelength and what is it measured in?
What is the amplitude and what is it measured in?
First you measure the distance / length (1) from the lens to
image / screen / focal point (1)
An eyepiece lens magnifies the image (1). An eyepiece lens also
refracts the light (1)
When looking through an eyepiece lens you would see
a magnified (1), erect (1) and virtual (1) image of the object
Refraction
The eyepiece lens is a small converging lens that is used to
magnify the image produced by the larger converging lens at
the other end of the telescope.
Energy and information but not matter
A real image is when the rays of light are bought together by a
lens and the image is observed on a screen, whereas a virtual
image is when the image is observed on a surface like a mirror.
The speed and direction of the light ray
The geocentric model has the earth at the centre of the solar
system and everything else orbiting around it. Whereas the
heliocentric has the sun at the centre and the planets orbiting
around it.
Galileo observed 4 moons (1) orbiting Jupiter (1) and not Earth,
therefore not everything orbits the Earth (1)
Energy and information
P-wave, ultrasound, infrasound, sound, P waves (each worth 1)
All of the electromagnetic waves including light etc. and seismic
S (secondary) waves.
The direction of the vibration is the same as the direction of
energy travel
The direction of the vibration is perpendicular/at a right angle
to the direction of energy travel
When a P waves occur, the particles vibrate/oscillate (1) in the
same direction as/parallel to the direction of the wave travels
(1)
The number of waves in 1 second and the unit is Hertz (Hz)
The length of 1 complete wave cycle. It is measured in meters
(m).
The distance from the centre of a wave to the top of the wave.
It is measured in meters (m).
P1 Topic 2 Core Questions
Which scientist discovered infra-red radiation?
Which scientist discovered ultra-violet radiation?
What are the colours of light in the visible spectrum? (Start
with the longest wavelength)
What is the order of waves in the electromagnetic spectrum?
(Start with the longest wavelength)
Are the electromagnetic waves transverse or longitudinal
Which travels faster in a vacuum light or radio waves?
Which end of the electromagnetic spectrum has waves of the
longest wavelength?
Which end of the electromagnetic spectrum has waves of the
highest frequency?
William Herschel
Johann Ritter
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.
Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves, Visible light,
Ultraviolet rays, X-rays, Gamma rays.
Transverse
Neither, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in
a vacuum.
Radio waves
Gamma rays
As the frequency of a wave increases, what happens to the
potential danger?
What are the harmful effects of excessive exposure to:
1. Microwaves
2. Infrared
3. Ultraviolet
4. X-rays and gamma rays?
Name some of the uses of:
1. Radio waves
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared
4. Visible light
5. Ultraviolet
6. X-rays
7. Gamma rays
It increases too because of the increased energy.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Describe a harmful effect of ultraviolet waves.
Which type of radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum is
likely to be the most dangerous?
Suggest other ways in which people can protect themselves
from these ultraviolet waves.
Describe one use of ultraviolet radiation.
Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum has the highest
frequency?
X-rays have many uses.
Describe one use for X-rays other than medical uses.
How many different colours are there in visible light?
What is the name of the ionising radiations is from a
radioactive source and is also part of the electromagnetic
spectrum?
Infrared is used in an electric toaster. Infrared is also used by
television remote control.
Explain why using a television remote control does not burn
anyone.
In the electromagnetic spectrum, what radiation is between
radio waves and infra-red radiation?
Internal heating of body cells
Skin burns
Damage to surface cells and eyes, leading to skin
cancer and eye conditions
Mutation or damage to cells in the body
Broadcasting, communications and satellite
transmissions.
Cooking, communications and satellite transmissions
Cooking, thermal imaging, short range
communications, optical fibres, TV remote controls
and security systems.
Vision, photography and illumination.
Security marking, fluorescent lamps, detecting forged
bank notes, disinfecting water.
Observing the internal structure of objects, airport
security scanners and medical X-rays.
Sterilising food and medical equipment and the
detection of cancer and its treatment.
8.
Dangers of UV radiation include damage to skin, sunburn,
skin cancer, damage to eyes, eye problems, cataracts (Each
worth 1 mark)
This would be gamma rays/γ (1)
They can wear sunscreen/suncream, sunglasses/UV glasses,
go into shade/stay indoors, wear protective clothing (Each
worth 1 mark)
A use of UV radiation can be:
 security marking (1) where ink absorbs UV and reradiates (visible) light (1)
 fluorescent lamps (1) where coating absorbs UV and
reradiates (visible) light (1)
 genuine bank notes (1) in which the watermark absorbs
UV and reradiates (visible) light (1)
 disinfecting water (1) where the UV kills bacteria (1)
 sun beds (1) where UV absorbed by (melanin in) skin (1)
Gamma rays (1) have the highest frequency
A use of X-ray radiation can be:
 (at the) airport /customs / docks / security checks (1) for
dangerous/illegal items (1)
 checking welds (1) to examine under the surface (1)
 checking paintings eq (1) to look for detail under the top
paint layer (1)
 X-ray telescopes/astronomy (1) to study/look at objects in
space (1)
 check packaging e.g. cans/packets (1) (to see if) filled to
correct level (1)
 sterilising (1) food/hospital equipment (1)
7
Gamma rays
The wavelength/frequency of the infra-red radiation in the
toaster is of a higher frequency (1)
Microwaves
Some users believed that sunglasses would protect their eyes
from the X-rays.
Explain how effective this would be as a precaution.
Name the radiation that causes skin cancer
Describe a use of gamma radiation.
Microwaves can be used for satellite communications.
State another use for microwaves.
Name 3 types of ionising radiation that transfer energy?
Where does ionising radiation come from?
The result would not be not effective (1) because X-rays can
easily penetrate sunglasses (1)
UV radiation
Any of the following:
 Sterilising food /medical equipment
 Detection / treatment of cancer imaging /detect flaws in
materials
Any of the following:
 Cooking
 Monitoring the weather / mobile phones
Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays
Radioactive sources continuously emit ionising radiation.
P1 Topic 3 Core Questions
What is the solar system and what is it part of?
It is made up of the sun and the 8 planets that orbit it and it is
part of the milky way galaxy.
Put the following in order of size starting with the smallest.
Sun, universe, moon, planet, galaxy, earth.
What is the definition of a galaxy?
Our Solar System is near the edge of a galaxy called the . . .
Large telescopes which collect visible light to explore the
Universe are usually placed near the tops of mountains.
Suggest why radio telescopes do not have to be placed high
up a mountain.
Suggest why, when a galaxy has a very large red-shift, some of
its visible light is not detected through the Earth’s
atmosphere.
Name one type of radiation that can reach the surface of the
Earth from stars.
Moon, Planets (Earth), Sun, Galaxy, Universe.
Name one type of radiation from stars that cannot be
detected at the Earth's surface but can be detected using
satellites.
Name one type of electromagnetic radiation that satellites on
the Earth’s surface can detect.
Suggest why radio telescopes do not have to be placed high
up a mountain.
Some scientists look for signs of water on other planets.
Suggest why they do this.
What methods are used to search for life beyond earth?
What is a spectrometer?
State what a nebula is
A nebula is a cloud of gas and dust where stars are formed.
A hot object forms when gas and dust in a nebula come
together. Explain why the gas and dust come together and
form a hot object.
Describe how the mass of a main sequence star will affect
what the star finally becomes.
A cluster of stars
Milky way
Because radio waves are not absorbed by the atmosphere (1)
Because light might be shifted into infrared region (1) and
some infrared is absorbed by atmosphere (1)
Any one of
 Radio waves
 visible light waves
 microwaves
Any one of
 X-ray
 gamma ray
 far infrared
Both radio (waves) (1) and microwaves (1) can be detected on
the Earth’s surface.
Radio waves are not absorbed by the atmosphere
As water is needed for life, if water is found then it gives
possibility of life
Space probes orbit other planets like mars photographing the
surface so Scientists can decide where water might have been.
The scientists can then land Landers to do soil experiments
and look for life in the most promising spots. SETI analyses
radio waves from space for signals from extra-terrestrial life.
A device that can split up the different wavelengths of light. (It
splits light into its different colours).
(cloud of) dust and/or gases (1)
The gas and dust is pulled together by gravity (1) which then
converts gravitational/kinetic energy into thermal energy(1)
Stars with a similar or smaller mass of our sun will become a
white/black dwarf (1)
Describe the life cycle of stars like our Sun
What is the Big Bang theory?
What is the Steady State theory?
The Steady State Theory is not as widely accepted as the Big
Bang Theory. Suggest a reason for this.
How do we know that galaxies further way from us are
moving faster than galaxies closer to us?
CMB is an abbreviation for. . .
Whereas a more massive will become a neutron star / black
hole (1)
Stage 1: Nebula - a cloud of dust and gases (mainly hydrogen)
pulled together by gravity.
Stage 2: Star (main sequence) - As the nebula grows the
gravitational pull gets stronger and the pressure and the heat
builds resulting in the formation of a star.
Stage 3: Red giant - When most of the hydrogen has fused into
helium the core collapses and the outer layers expand.
Stage 4: White dwarf - The red dwarf throws off a shell of gas
and what remains will be pulled together by gravity and
collapses. No further reactions happen inside a white dwarf.
The whole universe started out as a tiny point of concentrated
energy about 13.5 billion years ago. Since the big bang the
universe has been expanding ever since.
The universe has always existed and has been continuously
expanding with new matter being created as it expands.
Because there is more evidence for the big bang theory (1), it
is also more reliable as cosmic background radiation does not
support Steady State theory (1)
The faster a galaxy moves, the more red shift is seen.
Observations show us that there is more red shift from more
distant galaxies and so they must be moving faster.
Cosmic microwave background radiation
P1 Topic 4 Core Questions
The frequency of ultrasound is
Ultrasound is used for
Explain why ultrasound rather than X-rays are used for foetal
scanning.
Describe what is meant by infrasound waves.
Compared to normal sound waves, infrasound waves always
have a smaller
Name a use of infrasound
Explain which is the best type of sound wave for whales to use
when communicating over long distances
Describe what happens at the plate boundary to cause an
earthquake.
Explain what causes the plates to move.
The instrument used to detect earthquakes is a
Earthquakes produce P-waves and S-waves. Describe what can
happen to these waves when they reach the boundary
between the crust and the mantle
Waves from an earthquake are examples of…
Describe how particles in the ground move when P-waves
pass through it.
What can P-waves travel through?
What can S-waves travel through?
more than 20 000 Hz
Communication between animals, Sonar and foetal scanning
Ultrasound is not dangerous (1) but X-rays are because they
can damage to tissue/DNA OR mutate cells (1) in the body.
Infrasound waves are longitudinal waves (1) with a frequency
less than 20 Hz (1)
frequency
Communication between animals, detection of animal
movement in remote places, detection of volcanic eruptions
and meteors
Infrasound (1) is the best type of sound for whales
communicating because it decreases in amplitude is least (1)
and can be detected/'heard' further away (1)
An earthquake occurs when a plate moves/slip (1) causing a
sudden release of energy (1)
Plates move due to heat from the Earth’s core (1) which
causes convection currents (1) in the mantle (1)
Seismometer
When P-waves or S-waves meet the boundary between the
crust and mantle, they can be reflected (1) and refracted (1)
…both transverse and longitudinal waves
Particles in P-waves vibrate (1) in same direction as
wave/energy moves (1)
P-waves can travel through solid and liquid at speeds of about
10km/s. So these waves can travel from one side of earth
through to the opposite point.
S-waves can travel through solids but NOT liquids at speeds of
about 6km/s. So these waves cannot travel through the liquid
outer core of the earth and cannot be detected at the
opposite point on the earth.
Explain what causes a tsunami
Explain why scientists find it difficult to predict when a
tsunami may happen.
Geologists use sound waves from a small explosion to search
for oil underground.
A small explosion is triggered at the Earth's surface. The waves
reflect back from the top of the oil field.
Suggest why the waves are reflected from the oil field.
Tsunamis are caused by underwater earthquakes / volcanic
eruption (1) and are random (1)
Because it is impossible to predict earthquakes (1) as there is
no pattern to when movements occur (1) and they are not
able to predict force needed to make tectonic plates move
(1).
Seismic waves
Because there is a difference/change in density (1)
P1 Topic 5 Core Questions
What is the difference between current and voltage?
An electric current is the rate of flow of
State the unit in which electric current is usually measured.
Describe what happens inside a generator to produce a
current.
State one way in which the size of the current could be
increased.
A generator is connected to a lamp. The generator is turned
faster. Explain what happens to the lamp.
Describe the difference between direct current and
alternating current.
State the difference between the currents which makes one
alternating and the other direct.
What is the name of the device used to change the size of an
alternating voltage?
The output from the solar panel is 60 V.
State why a transformer cannot be used to increase this
voltage.
Describe what change happens when a step-up transformer is
used.
Why is electrical energy transmitted at high voltages?
Where would step up and step down transformers be used in
the national grid?
What unit is electrical energy from the mains measured in?
What is power and what units is it measured in?
What are the standard units for energy transferred?
A small notebook computer has a power rating of 40 W. How
much energy is supplied to the computer each second?
Describe how electrical energy is obtained from one named
renewable resource.
One type of solar panel uses the Sun's energy to produce
electricity. Which energy transfer takes place in a solar cell?
What is a renewable and non-renewable energy source?
Current is the ‘rate of flow of charge’ and voltage is the
‘electrical pressure giving a measure of the energy
transferred’.
Charge
Ampere(s), amp(s), A
A magnet (1) spins/turns (1) in/near) a coil of wire (1)
OR
A coil of wire (1) spins/turns (1) in a magnetic field
You can increase the size of a current by increasing the
strength of magnet (1); increasing number of coils/turns of
wire (1) or increasing the speed of rotation (1)
The light bulb would increase in brightness (1), due to an
increased voltage (1)
With direct current the flow of charge is only in one direction
(1) whereas with alternating current the flow of charge
changes (1)
Alternating current can take positive and negative values RA
(1)
Transformer
Transformers only change alternating voltages/currents and
will not work with direct current
As the voltage increases (1) the current decreases(1)
It improves efficiency by reducing heat loss in the transmission
lines by allowing a lower current to be used.
Step up transformers are used in power stations whereas step
down transformers are used before electricity enters factories
and again before it enters homes, offices and shops.
Kilowatt-hours
It is the rate of transferring energy. It is measured in Watts
(W).
Joules (J)
40J
Any of the following:
Hydroelectric
Geothermal
Wind turbine
Light to electrical
Non-renewable: Once it has been used it has been effectively
lost. (Examples include coal, oil and gas (fossil fuels) and
uranium.)
What are the advantages of non-renewable sources of
energy?
What are the disadvantages of renewable sources of energy?
Renewable: It can be used again and again. (examples include:
wind, wave, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, bio fuels etc.)
Possible to generate large amounts of electricity reliably and
relatively cheaply.
Not always reliable, often expensive, don’t generate a lot of
electricity in comparison to non-renewables.
P1 Topic 6 Core Questions
Name 9 different types of energy.
The athlete gets the energy he needs for his jump from his
food. The form of energy stored in food is
Which forms of energy does the athlete have at the top of his
jump?
Describe the energy transfer taking place in a loudspeaker.
A student uses a solar powered battery charger to charge
some batteries. What is the form of energy transferred into
the battery charger?
Can energy be created?
The students read the statement: ‘All the energy supplied to
the motor eventually ends up as thermal energy in the
surroundings.’ This statement best describes the idea of…
Some students investigate the efficiency of electric motors.
One of the students states that all of the energy supplied to a
motor is transferred into other forms.
This statement is one example of the idea of
What is efficiency?
How does a system remain at a constant temperature?
When the heater is switched on, it quickly warms up and then
stays at a constant temperature.
Explain why the heater stays at a constant temperature.
The electric motors which drive the wheels are painted black.
Suggest why the motors are painted black
State why the pipes in the solar water heater are painted
black.
The hosepipe is painted black because blackened surfaces
are…
A solar powered shower uses a plastic bag containing water;
the instructions are to leave the bag out in sunlight during the
day. Explain what colour the bag should be to heat the water
to the highest temperature.
Light, thermal (heat), sound, electrical, Kinetic (movement),
chemical, gravitational potential, elastic potential, nuclear.
Chemical energy
gravitational potential and kinetic
A loudspeaker transfers electrical energy (1) into sound
energy (1)
light energy → electrical energy → chemical energy
(1)
No, it can only be transferred. Energy is conserved.
conservation of energy
conservation of energy
A measure of how much of the energy is transferred into a
useful energy type.
It needs to radiate the same average power (measured in
Watts (W)) as it absorbs.
An explanation linking
dissipating heat (1)
at same (rate)/s quickly as energy is being supplied (1)
Any one from black is a good thermal radiator (1) (helps to)
prevent motors overheating (1)
Black is a good absorber of heat energy (1) as it absorbs
more infrared radiation (1)
…good absorbers of radiation
The bag should be black (1) because black is a good absorber
of thermal radiation (1)
P1 Keywords and Definitions
keywords
Converge
Converging Lens
Convex Lens
Eyepiece lens
Focal length
Geocentric
Heliocentric
Image
Definitions
When rays of light come together towards a point.
A lens which focuses light inwards onto a point. Also called convex.
A lens which focuses light inwards onto a point. Also called converging.
The lens found in the place you look into on a telescope.
The distance between lens and focussed image.
Earth at the centre.
The Sun at the centre.
The visable reproduction of an object, e.g. by a lens.
Interface
Lens
Light waves
Magnifications
Magnified
Magnify
The point where two things interact or meet.
An object that refracts light in a way that makes it diverge or converge.
The name given to waves in the EM spectrum that we can see.
Enlargements.
Made bigger by a lens.
To enlarge an image.
Microwaves
The waves in the EM spectrum that can be used for heating water and sending signals.
Naked eye
Normal
Objective lens
Orbits
Primary mirror
The body part that can be used to look into the night sky.
The imaginary line at right angles to a surface.
A lens which magnifies the image.
The curved path an object follows around another object in space.
The curved mirror in a telescope that light first reflects off.
Radio waves
The name given to waves in the EM spectrum that have the longest wavelength.
Real image
Reflected
Reflecting telescope
Refracting telescope
An image which can be projected onto a screen.
"Bounced" off a surface.
A telescope that uses a curved mirror and lens.
A telescope which uses lenses and not mirrors.
Refraction
The name given to light changing speed and direction between two materials.
Telescope
Transfer
Transverse waves
A device used to study space.
Move from place to place.
Waves where the movement is at right angles to the direction of travel.
Virtual image
An image which appears to exist if you look through a lens but you cannot project.
Visible light
Alpha (α) particles
Amplitude
Beta (β) particles
DNA
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic
spectrum
Electromagnetic waves
Fluorescence
Fluorescent lamps
Frequency
Gamma rays
Hertz (Hz)
Illuminated
The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see.
Helium nuclei (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
The "height" of a wave or how much it is displaced.
High speed electrons.
An acid which makes up a code that gives us our genetics.
Any emitted part of the EM spectrum.
Infrared
The region of the electromagnetic spectrum that is produced by all objects with heat.
Infrared radiation (IR)
The region of the electromagnetic spectrum that is produced by all objects with heat.
Ionising radiation
Radiation that can cause particles to gain a charge by losing electrons or an electron.
Ions
Longitudinal waves
Mutations
Negative powers
Optical fibre
Radioactive
A particle with a charge (due to an unbalanced number of electrons).
Waves where the movement is along the direction of travel.
When the DNA of a cell is altered.
A power in maths that has a negative value.
A glass strand that can allow light to pass through it.
Something which gives off ionising radiation.
The spectrum of light - visible and not visible.
"Light waves" found anywhere in the EM spectrum.
Giving off light.
A lamp that gives off light.
How many waves pass per second.
The region of the spectrum that kills cells and can be very harmful.
The unit for frequency meaning once per second.
Lit up.
Radiotherapy
Seismic waves
Skin cancer
Sound waves
Thermal imaging
Treating someone with radiation.
Waves created by earthquakes.
An illness caused by mutations in skin cells.
Waves generated by noise.
Making an image based on the heat given off by something.
Ultraviolet
The region of the electromagnetic spectrum that is next to violet but can't be seen.
Ultraviolet radiation (UV)
The region of the electromagnetic spectrum that is next to violet but can't be seen.
Vacuum
Wave speed
Wavelength
X-rays
A space with no particles in it.
The speed of the wave.
The length of a wave.
The region of the spectrum used to take medical images of bones.
The idea that the Universe quickly expanded from a point in space and no new matter
is created.
Big Bang theory
Black hole
Cosmic microwave
background (CMB)
radiation
Dense
A dead star creating so much gravitational pull that even light is pulled in.
Radiation found evenly spread throughout the Universe.
Tightly packed.
Doppler Effect
The effect heard when an ambulance comes towards you then moves away.
Fusion reactions
A reaction where hydrogen become helium and releases energy (like in stars).
Galaxy
A collection of millions of stars that are close together and possibly orbit a black hole.
Landers
Main sequence
Milky Way
Nebulae
Neutron star
Nuclei
Pitch
Protostar
Red giant
Red supergiants
Red-shift
Rovers
Search for Extraterrestrial
Intelligence (SETI)
Solar System
Space probes
Spectrometer
Something which goes to another planet.
The normal life cycle a star follows.
The galaxy in which we live.
Huge clouds of gas in space.
A dead star that is very dense.
The centres of things (including atoms).
Effectively means frequency.
The beginnings of a new star.
A main sequence star that is getting older and bigger.
A larger star that is getting older and bigger.
When light looks more red because of a stretched wave length.
Something which moves around on another planet.
Spectrum
In terms of light this means all of the groups of light. It can mean a rainbow.
Stars
Balls of gas in space that emit light due to the nuclear reactions within them.
Steady State theory
Supernova
Universe
Visible light
White dwarf
A project that searches for intelligent life in space.
A collection of stars and planets in orbit of each other.
Something which we send into space looking for things.
Something that measures a spectrum, looking for dark lines in it.
The idea that the Universe has always existed but gets bigger with new matter being
made.
A huge explosion from a dying star.
Everything that exists.
The light which we can see.
The remnants of a dead main sequence star.
Convection currents
Core
Crust
Earthquakes
Epicentre
Focus
Frequency
Infrasound
Mantle
Medium
P waves
S waves
Seismic waves
Seismometers
Sonar
Sound wave
Tectonic plates
Tsunami
Ultrasound
Ultrasound scan
Acid rain
Alternating current (AC)
The way in which heat "moves" in the mantle, rising and falling.
The centre of the Earth.
The outer layer of the Earth made up of rock.
A tremor resulting from movement in the Earth's crust.
The point at the surface directly above the focal point of an earthquake.
The point where a seismic wave began.
How many waves pass in a second.
Low frequency sound (below 20Hz).
The layer below the Earth's crust made of molten magma.
A material through which something passes.
Longitudinal (and faster) seismic waves.
Waves that have changed speed and direction at the boundary between two
materials.
Transverse (and slower) seismic waves.
A wave which travels through the Earth.
A device used to measure the size of waves travelling through the Earth.
A system used to see how deep water is (or look for objects in water).
A wave caused by noise.
The large area of the Earth's crust that move slowly.
Water waves caused by movement in the Earth's crust.
High frequency sound (above 20,000Hz).
A scan using high frequency sound waves.
Rain with a lower pH.
Current which flows "back and forth" or in different directions.
Carbon brushes
Connectors used to maintain a good contact with the dynamo as it spins.
Climate change
Current
Decommissioned
Direct current (DC)
Dynamos
The change to the temperature and weather of the Earth.
The flow of charge/electrons.
Not used any more and shut down/disused.
Current which flows in one direction only.
A device which used movement (kinetic energy) to create electricity.
Efficiency
How much energy is transferred usefully compared to how much is wasted.
Electricity
Electromagnetic
induction
Electromagnets
Fossil fuels
Generator
Geothermal energy
Hydroelectricity
The flow of charge/electrons, often in a wire.
Induced current
Current created by a magnetic field being moved along a wire (like in a dynamo).
Joule (J)
The measurement of energy.
A measurement of electricity use in a home meaning 1000W being transferred in an
hour.
A thousand watts (1000W).
A field caused by a magnet with a north and south.
The wires and transformers that supply electricity around the country.
Energy resources from sources that cannot be replenished (can run out).
Energy from nuclear materials like uranium.
The rate (speed) at which energy is transferred.
Refracted
Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Kilowatts (kW)
Magnetic field
National Grid
Non-renewable resources
Nuclear power
Power
The creation of electrical current by moving a magnet along/around a wire.
A magnet created using an electrical current.
Fuels from fossilised plants and animals (coal, oil and natural gas).
A device which produces electricity.
Energy from hot rocks beneath the Earth's surface.
Electricity produced by water turbines in dams of reservoirs.
Primary coil
Renewable energy
resources
Secondary coil
Slip rings
Solar cells
Solar energy
Step-down transformer
Step-up transformer
Tidal power
Transformer
Unit
Voltage
Watt (W)
Wave power
Wind turbines
Chemical potential
Cost-efficient
Elastic potential
Electrical
Energy transfer
Gravitational potential
Kinetic
Law of conservation of
energy
Light
Nuclear potential
The coil of wire carrying electrical current entering a transformer.
Payback time
The time it takes for the savings of a new device to cover the cost of buying it.
Sound
System
Thermal
Energy we hear.
Connected processes that make up a bigger whole.
Heat energy.
Energy that comes from a source that is continually replenished (isn't running out).
The coil of wire carrying electrical current leaving a transformer.
Connection rings found on a dynamo.
A cell that produces electrical current when sunlight is absorbed by it.
Energy that comes from sunlight.
A device which decreases the voltage of AC current.
A device which increases the voltage of AC current.
Energy from the rising and falling tide.
A device which changes the voltage of AC current.
The measurement of electricity use in a home.
The "pressure" in a circuit, sometimes called the potential difference.
The unit for power, also meaning joules per second.
Energy from waves.
Turbines that are turned by the wind (like windmills).
Energy potential in chemicals.
Pays for itself with the savings it makes.
Energy potential in something elasticated.
Energy which is the flow of electrons.
The change of energy from one for to another.
Energy potential as you move up through gravity or higher.
Movement energy.
The law that energy is never lost.
The form of energy we see.
Energy potential in radioactive materials.
P2 Core Questions
Topic 1
Name 3 sub atomic particles
Name the mass and charge of a proton
Name the mass and charge of an electron
Name the mass and charge of a neutron
What sub-atomic particles are found in the nucleus?
What sub-atomic particles are found in orbits outside the
nucleus?
Opposite/unlike charges...
Same/like charges...
Describe how static electricity is formed
What charge does an object which has gained electrons
have?
What charge does the object which has lost electrons have?
Explain how static electricity induces a charge
Protons, neutrons and electrons,
Mass 1, charge positive
Mass 0, charge negative
Mass 1, charge neutral
Protons and neutrons
Electrons
Attract
Repel
Friction between 2 insulators causes electrons to move from
one material to another.
Negative
Positive
A negative object is brought near a neutral object; it repels the
negative electrons leaving a positive charge on the neutral
object. The negative object is attracted to the now positive
object.
Name 3 uses of static electricity
Spray painting cars, chimney precipitators, spraying insecticide
Describe how static electricity is used to spray paint
(charges can be the other way around)
Paint is given a negative charge; they repel each other and
form a mist of paint. The car is given a positive charge; the
negative paint attracts to the positive car and coats it.
Less waste of paint
Saves money
Friction, caused by the plane colliding with particles in the
atmosphere, causes electrons to build up in the body of the
aircraft as it is insulated and these electrons cannot be
earthed.
-Fuelling aircraft- static builds up in the nozzle and could spark
and ignite the fuel causing an explosion
-Lightning
-Flying aircraft
The aeroplane and the tanker are earthed using a metal wire
to discharge any build up of electrons
Electrons are built up in you as your shoes/jumper rub against
something, when you touch a conductor you get an electric
shock as electrons flow from you through the conductor and
to the Earth.
They contain a sea of delocalised/free electrons, which are
free to move
The flow of electrons
The rate of flow of electrons
The flow of electrons in one direction
A battery, a cell, a dynamo
Electrons moving back and forth millions of times a second
Charge = current x time
Coulombs (C)
Suggest benefits to using static electricity for spray-painting
or insecticides
Explain how static electricity builds up in aircraft
What are some of the potential dangers of electrostatic
charges?
How are aeroplanes refuelled safely
Describe the movement of electrons when you get a static
electric shock
Why are metals good conductors?
What is current?
What is electric current?
Describe a direct current
State objects that would produce a direct current
Describe an alternating current
How do you calculate charge?
What unit do we measure charge in?
Topic 2
What is the unit for current, how do you measure it and how
do you place it in a circuit?
What is the unit for potential difference, what equipment do
you use to measure it and how do you place it in a circuit?
What happens to current in a series circuit?
What happens to the voltage in a series circuit?
If the potential difference across V2 is 2.5V and across V3 is
2.5V, what is the potential difference across V1?
Measured in Amps (A), using an ammeter which is placed in
series in a circuit
Measured in Volts (V), using a voltmeter which is placed
across a component (parallel to a component)
The current is always the same throughout a series circuit
The voltage provided by the power pack/battery is shared
between the components in the series circuit
5V
V1 = V2 + V3
If A1 read 3A, what would the current at A2 and A3 be?
3A
What happens to the current in a parallel circuit?
The current splits/divides at a junction and recombines at a
later junction
The voltage across the powerpack/battery is the same across
all components in a parallel circuit
What happens to the voltage in a parallel circuit?
If A1 = 3 A and A2 = 1A, what is the current measured at A3
and A4?
A3 = 2A
A4 = 3A (because the current after the junction must always
equal the current before the junction)
If V2 has the potential difference of 5V, what is the potential
difference of V1 and V3?
They are both 5V
What happens to the current if you increase the potential
difference (voltage) of a power pack/battery
If you increase the resistance in a circuit, what happens to
the current?
How do you calculate resistance?
What is the unit for resistance?
Determine the resistance of this circuit if the current is 2.5A
and the voltage is 3V
The current increases
If the current in a circuit is 1.4A, and the resistance is 3Ω,
what is the potential difference in the circuit?
Figure out the current when the resistance is 2.5Ω and the
voltage is 13V.
Explain why the resistance of a filament lamp changes as it
gets hot?
How does a diode work?
How does the current vary with voltage for a diode?
What is an LDR?
How does the resistance of a light dependant resistor change
with light intensity?
What happens to the resistance and current in a thermistor
as you increase temperature?
How does the current vary with voltage for a filament lamp
as it warms up?
Which of the following graphs shows how current varies with
potential difference for:
1) Filament lamp
2) Diode
3) Fixed resistor
It decreases.
Resistance = voltage / current
R = V/ I
Ohms (Ω)
Equation: R = V/ I
Substitute: R = 3V / 2.5A
Calculate: 3 / 2.5 = 1.2
Units: R = 1.2 Ω
Equation: V = I x R
Substitute: V = 1.4A x 3Ω
Calculate: 1.4 x 3 = 4.2
Units: V = 4.2V
Equation: I = V / R
Substitute: I = 13V / 2.5Ω
Calculate: 13 / 2.5 = 5.2
Units: I = 5.2A
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as it gets hot
because the metal ions in the filament vibrate faster causing
more collisions with the moving electrons, decreasing current.
It only allows current to pass through it in one direction.
When the current is flowing in the right direction, the current
increases voltage increases but it is not directly proportional
(not a straight line on the graph).
The gradient of the graph increases as current increases,
because as the diode gets hotter (from the greater current) its
resistance increases.
Light dependent resistor.
As light intensity increases, the resistance decreases.
As the temperature increases, the resistance decreases, which
increases the current (flow of electrons)
As a bulb heats up the resistance increases and so, as current
increases voltage increases but it is not directly proportional
(not a straight line on the graph).
The gradient of the graph increases as current increases. This
is because as the bulb gets hotter its resistance increases,
until it reaches its maximum temperature.
1) Filament lamp – graph a
2) Diode – graph c
3) Fixed resistor – graph b
What does resistance transfer electrical energy into?
Name a device where the heating effect of an electric
current is useful.
Name a device where the heating effect of an electric
current is not useful.
What is the unit for electrical power?
What is the unit for energy transferred?
What is power?
What unit do we measure power in?
How can you calculate power using the energy transferred in
an object and the time it is used for?
What is the power of a device if it transfers 18,000J of energy
in 10 minutes?
How long is a 50W device used for if it transfers 1.5kJ?
How much energy is transferred when a 500W device is used
for half an hour?
How can you calculate power using current and voltage?
A kettle uses the mains electricity at 230V. The current is
13A. What is the power of the kettle?
What is the current flowing through a 36W device using a
12V power supply?
What is the voltage of the power supply for a 144W device
which has current of 16A flowing through it?
How is energy calculated using an equation? (hint: combine
the power calculations together!)
What is the energy transferred when a radio uses a 12V
supply for 15 minutes, and has a current of 3A?
Thermal energy (heat)
Toaster, kettle, oven...
Light bulb
Watt
Joule
The rate of energy transferred from one form to
another/others.
Watts (W)
Power = Energy transferred/time taken
P=E/t
Equation: P = E / t
Convert: time needs to be in seconds, 10 minutes x 60 = 600s
Substitute: P = 18,000J / 600s
Calculate: 18,000 / 600
Units: P = 30W
Equation: t = E / P
Convert: Energy needs to be in J: 1.5kJ x 1000 = 1500J
Substitute: t = 1500J / 50W
Calculate: 1500 / 50 = 30
Units: t = 30s
Equation: E = P x t
Convert: Time needs to be in seconds: 0.5 hours x 60 = 30
minutes x 60 = 1800s
Substitute: E = 500W x 1800s
Calculate: 500 x 1800 = 900,000
Units: E = 900,000J
Power = Current x voltage P = I x V
Equation: P = I x V
Substitute: P = 13A x 230V
Calculate: 13 x 230= 2990
Units: P = 2990W
Equation: I = P / V
Substitute: I = 36W / 12V
Calculate: 36 / 12 =3A
Units: I = 3A
Equation: V = P / I
Substitute: V = 144W / 16A
Calculate: 144 / 16 = 9
Units: V = 9V
Energy = Current x Voltage x time
E=IxVxt
Equation: E = I x V x t
Convert: 15 minutes into seconds: 15 x 60 = 900s
Substitute: E = 3A x 12V x 900s
Calculate: 3 x 12 x 900 = 32400
Units: E = 32400J
Topic 3
What is the unit for velocity?
What is a vector quantity?
m/s
It has both a size (magnitude) and direction.
Give 5 examples of a vector quantity?
How is speed calculated?
A cyclist travels a distance of 1800m in 2 minutes. What is their speed?
How long did it take for a car to travel 30 metres when travelling at
0.6m/s?
A peregrine falcon can fly at speeds of 50m/s, at this speed how far
can it travel in 7 seconds?
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and
momentum.
Speed = distance / time
Equation: S = D / t
Convert: Time needs to be in seconds: 2 x 60 = 120s
Substitute: S = 1800m / 120s
Calculate: S = 1800 / 120 = 15
Units: S = 15 m/s
Equation: t = D / S
Substitute: t = 30m / 0.6m/s
Calculate: t = 30 / 0.6
Units: t = 50s
Equation: D = S x t
Substitute: D = S x t
Calculate: 50 x 7 = 350
Units: 350m
Using a distance time graph, describe what is happening to the object
between O and A, A and B and B and C?
O and A: The object is accelerating forwards
A and B: The object is stationary
B and C: The object is moving backwards
What is acceleration and its unit?
Acceleration is the rate of change of speed, its unit is
m/s2
Acceleration = change in velocity / time
Change in velocity = final velocity – initial velocity
v–u
Equation: A = (v – u) / t
Substitute: A = (50m/s – 0m/s) / 5
Calculate: A = 50 / 5
Units: 10 m/s2
Equation: (v – u) = A x t
Substitute: (v – u) = 2m/s2 x 600s
Calculate: 2 x 600 = 1200
Units: (v – u) = 1200m/s
Equation: t = (v – u) / A
Substitute: t = (20m/s – 70m/s) / -2.5m/s2
Calculate: -50 / -2.5 = 20
Units: t = 20s
1) If it’s speeding up or slowing down.
2) If it’s changing direction.
1) The object is accelerating quickly
2) The object is moving at a constant speed
3) The object is decelerating
4) The object is stationary
How do you calculate acceleration?
How do you calculate change in velocity?
A car starts from 0m/s and reaches a velocity of 50m/s in 5 seconds,
what is its acceleration?
What is the change in velocity if an object accelerates at a rate of
2m/s2 in 600 seconds
How long did it take for a car accelerating by -2.5m/s2 when its initial
velocity was 70m/s and its final velocity was 20m/s.
Give 2 examples of how an object can accelerate.
Describe the motion of each objects on these velocity-time graphs
Describe how to calculate the distance an object has travelled using a
velocity-time graph
Name a force
By measuring the area under the graph
Friction/drag/air resistance/water resistance
Weight/gravity
Thrust/upthrust/
Reaction
Lift
When 2 forces (action and reaction forces) interact with each other,
what effect do they have?
Describe the motion of each 4 objects
When action and reaction forces interact they exert
a force that is equal in size and opposite in direction
to each other
A: Stationary
B: Accelerating
C: Constant speed
D: Decelerating
What are the forces in this free-body diagram?
1= reaction
2= gravity
What are the forces in this free-body diagram?
1= reaction
2= thrust
3= gravity
4= friction/air resistance/ drag
If the forces acting on an object are balanced and the resultant force is
zero, what is the motion of the object?
If the forces on an object are unbalanced, how will it behave?
Stationary or constant speed
What is resultant force?
What is the resultant force of this object? What is it’s motion?
A cyclist applies 100 N of thrust to a bike and is battling against 75 N of
wind resistance, how would you describe their motion and what is the
resultant force?
What 2 factors affect the size of the acceleration of an object?
F=ma what does it stand for, what are the units for F and m?
A 1500kg car has an acceleration of 3.0m/s2, what is the force
provided by the engine?
A car accelerates at 6m/s² as its engine provides a force of 7,800 N.
What is the mass of the car?
A jumbo jet has a mass of 40, 000,000g. If its engines produce a force
of 800, 000 N, what will its acceleration be?
It will accelerate in the direction of the resultant
force.
The total force that results from 2 or more forces
acting on an object
10N to the left
The object is decelerating
They are accelerating with a resultant force of 25N
acting in forwards direction.
The mass of the object and the size of the force
accelerating the object forwards
Force = mass x acceleration
Force unit is Newtons (N)
Mass unit is kilograms (Kg)
Equation: F = M x A
Substitute: F = 1500kg x 3m/s2
Calculate: 1500 x 3 = 4500
Units: F = 4500N
Equation: M = F / A
Substitute: M = 7,800N / 6m/s2
Calculate: M = 7,800 / 6
Units: M = 1,300kg
Equation: A = F / M
Convert: Mass needs to be in kg, 40,000,000 / 1000
= 40,000
Substitute: A = 800,000 / 40,000kg
Calculate: 800,000 / 40,000
What is the difference between mass and weight?
What is terminal velocity?
Describe how the forces acting on a ball change as it starts to fall from
the sky
How do you calculate the weight of an object?
What is the weight of a 300kg planetary landing craft on the surface of
the Earth?
What is the mass of an object if the weight is 120N on Jupiter whose
GFS is 25N/kg?
What is the GFS of Mars if a 150kg object has a weight of 570N?
Units: A = 20m/s2
Mass never changes, it is a measure of the amount
of matter that makes up an object whereas weight
depends on the gravitational field strength of a
planet
The point at which the weight and air resistance are
balanced and the object can accelerate no more.
At the start of the fall the downward force (weight)
is greater than the upward force (air resistance). The
weight remains constant but the air resistance
increases as the ball accelerates until the weight is
balanced out by the air resistance. At this point the
ball is moving at a constant speed, this is known as
the terminal velocity.
Weight (N) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength
(N/kg)
Equation: W = M x GFS
Substitute: W = 300kg x 10N
Calculate: 300 x 10 = 3000
Units: W = 3000N
Equation: M = W / GFS
Substitute: M = 120N / 25N/kg
Calculate: M = 120 / 25 = 0.48
Units: M = 4.8kg
Equation: GFS = W / M
Substitute: GFS = 570N / 150kg
Calculate: 570 / 150 = 3.8
Units: GFS = 3.8N/kg
Topic 4
How do you calculate the stopping distance of a car?
List four factors that affect the thinking distance of a driver
Stopping Distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
alcohol/other drugs, tiredness, distractions, age,
List 5 factors that affect the braking distance of a car
Quality of brakes, mass of vehicle, speed of vehicle, state of
the road, the amount of friction between the tyre and road
surface (affected by weather and tyre condition).
Momentum is a measurement of the velocity and mass of a
moving object.
1. Changing the size of an object
2. Changing the speed of an object
3. Changing the direction of an object
Kg m/s
Momentum = mass x velocity
Equation: Mo = Ma x V
Substitute: Mo = 1200kg x 12m/s
Calculate: Mo = 1200 x 12 = 14400
Units: Mo = 14,400 kg m/s
Equation: V = Mo / Ma
Substitute: V = 5000 kg m/s / 250kg
Calculate: V = 5000 / 250 = 20
Units: V = 20 m/s
Equation: Ma = Mo / V
Substitute: Ma = 54,000kg m/s /12m/s
Calculate: Ma = 54,000 / 12 = 4500
Units: Ma = 4500 kg
Seatbelts, crumple zones, air bags.
What is momentum?
Name 3 ways we can change the momentum of an object
What is the unit for momentum?
How do you calculate momentum?
A 1200kg car travels along at 12 m/s, calculate its
momentum.
Calculate the velocity of a 250kg object if it’s momentum is
5000 kg m/s.
Calculate the mass of an object which has the momentum of
54, 000 kg m/s and travels at a velocity of 12m/s.
What features do cars have to reduce the rate of change of
momentum of passengers when the car brakes sharply or has
a collision?
Why do seat belts, crumple zones and air bags make
collisions safer?
They increase the time taken for the person in the vehicle to
stop; this reduces the size of the force acting on a person.
What is the law of conservation of momentum?
A ball with momentum of 10kg m/s hits a stationary object,
what is the total momentum of the balls after the collision?
HIGHER) How can you calculate the force of an object during
a collision?
HIGHER) What force is needed to get a 25 kg stationary
bicycle moving from 0m/s to 12 m/s in 5s?
How can you increase an objects gravitational potential
energy?
How do you calculate work done?
What is work done?
What is the unit for work done?
Sharon lifts a 5N weight 50cm, how much work is done?
What is the force if the work done is 30J when an object is
moved 4m?
Calculate the distance an object when it is moved with a
force of 30N, if the work done is 900J.
What is a definition of power?
What is the unit for power?
How do you calculate power?
What can be measured in joules per second?
The rate of doing work is called...
Calculate the power of an object if the work done is 800J in
400s
What is the work done if a 500W crane moves a box in
1,800s?
How fast can a 1,600W machine move an object which would
require 32,000J?
How can you combine work done = force x distance and
power = work done / time
A motorbike accelerates over 40m, it uses a force of 6000N
and takes 5 seconds to travel the 40m. What power did the
engine produce?
The total momentum before a collision is the same as the
total momentum after a collision
10kg m/s
Force = Change in momentum / time
Momentum at start = 0 × 12 = 0 kg m/s
Momentum at end = 25 × 12 = 300 kg m/s
Change in momentum = 300 – 0 = 300 kg m/s
Equation: Force = change in momentum ÷ time
Substitution: Force = 300kg m/s ÷ 5s
Calculation: Force = 300 ÷ 5 = 60
Units: Force = 60N
Increase the objects height
Work done (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
It is the amount of energy transferred
Joules
Equation: WD = F x D
Convert: distance needs to be in metres= 50cm becomes
0.5M
Substitute: WD = 5N x 0.5
Calculate: 5 x 0.5 = 2.5
Units: WD = 2.5J
Equation: F = WD / D
Substitute: F = 30J / 4m
Calculate: 30 / 4 = 7.5
Units: F = 7.5N
Equation: D = WD / F
Substitute: D = 900J / 30N
Calculate: 900 / 30 = 30
Units: D = 30m
The amount of energy transferred every second (Joule per
second (J/S))
Watt (W)
Power = work done / time
Power
Power
Equation: P = WD / t
Substitute: P = 800J / 400s
Calculate: 800 / 400 = 2
Units: P = 2W
Equation: WD = P x t
Substitute: WD = 500W x 1,800s
Calculate: 500 x 1,800 = 900,000
Units: WD = 900,000s
Equation: t = WD / P
Substitute: t = 32,000J / 1,600W
Calculate: 32,000 / 1,600 = 20
Units: t = 20s
Power = (force x distance)
time
Equation 1: Work done = F x d
Substitute: Work done = 6000N x 40m
Calculate: Work done = 240,000 J
Equation 2: Power = work done / time taken
Substitute: Power = 240,000J / 5
Calculate: Power = 240,000 / 5 = 48,000
Units: Power = 48,000W or 48kW
Or
Equation: P = (F x D) / t
Substitute: P = (6000 x 40) / 5
A cart on a rollercoaster sits stationary at the top of a steep
drop. Which type of energy does it have a lot of?
What is the value of this energy equal to?
As the cart rolls down the track, what is this energy
converted to?
Name 9 different types of energy.
Energy transfers are never totally efficient, which type of
energy is most often lost to the surroundings in an energy
transfer?
At which point will the ball have the maximum/greatest
gravitational potential energy?
Calculate: 240,000 / 5 = 48,000
Units: 48,000W
Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)
The work done moving the cart to the top of the ride.
Kinetic, thermal (heat) and sound energy
Kinetic, gravitational potential, electrical, chemical, nuclear,
sound, light, heat, elastic
Heat
B has the greatest gravitational potential energy
What energy changes are occurring between B and C?
Gravitational potential energy is decreasing as it transfers
into an increasing amount of kinetic energy, thermal energy
and sound energy
How do you calculate gravitational potential energy?
GPE (J) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg) x
height (m)
Equation: GPE = m x gfs x h
Substitute: GPE = 500 x 10 x 15
Calculate: 500 x 10 x 15 = 75000
Units: GPE = 75,000 J
Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity2
Equation: KE = ½ x m x v2
Conversions: 2m/s x 2m/s = 4m/s2
Substitute: KE = ½ x 2kg x 4m/s2
Calculate: KE = 0.5 x 2 x 4
Units: KE = 4J
What is the gravitational potential energy gained by a 500kg
car is lifted 15m on Earth (GFS=10N/kg)?
How do you calculate kinetic energy?
What is the kinetic energy transferred by a 2kg dog walking
2m/s?
Topic 5
What is alpha radiation?
What is beta radiation?
What is gamma radiation?
What is an ion?
How do atoms form ions?
When an unstable nucleus emits ionising radiation is it a
random or predictable event?
Which is most highly ionising type of radiation?
Which is more penetrating type of radiation?
For each type of radiation, state what can stop it
What is the atomic number?
What is the mass number?
What is an isotope?
Do radioactive sources stay radioactive forever?
Describe how nuclear fission produces thermal energy
A Helium nuclei (two protons and two neutrons)
An electron
An electromagnetic wave
A charged atom or group of atoms.
By gaining or losing electrons.
random
Alpha
Gamma
Alpha: a sheet of paper, skin, a few cms of air
Beta: 3mm aluminium, metres of air
Gamma: Thick lead or concrete; kilometres of air
The number of protons present.
The relative mass of an atom which is equal to the number of
protons and neutrons present.
Two or more atoms of the same element (the same number of
protons) but with a different number of neutrons.
No- the activity of a radioactive source decreases over time
1) Uranium 235 nucleus absorbs a neutron
2) Nucleus becomes unstable
3) Nucleus splits (known as fission)
What is a nuclear chain reaction?
What does the fission of U-235 produce?
How are chain reactions controlled?
How can you increase the amount of electricity being
generated using the control rods in a nuclear reactor?
How can you stop a nuclear reactor fully?
What does the moderator do in a nuclear reactor
What material is used for a control rod?
What material is used for a moderator?
What is the key benefits and disadvantages of using nuclear
power to generate electricity?
How is thermal energy from a nuclear reactor used to
generate electrical energy in a power station?
What is nuclear fusion?
Describe what happens during nuclear fusion
Where is fusion found naturally?
What are the conditions required for fusion and where does
it normally occur?
Why is it extremely difficult to initiate nuclear fusion?
Why can we not make a nuclear fusion power station?
When is a new idea accepted by the scientific community
(e.g. cold fusion)
Explain the phrase validated by the scientific community.
4) Into 2 daughter nuclei (of similar size) (Kr & Ba)
5) 2 or more neutrons released
6) Energy is released
Where the neutrons produced by a fission reaction trigger
further nuclear fission reactions. This increases in number of
fission reactions as more neutrons are produced.
Two daughter nuclei and two or more neutrons and a large
amount of energy.
Control rods are lowered to absorb excess neutrons
By moving the control rods out of the reactor, fewer neutrons
are absorbed and so more fission reactions occur. This
produces more thermal energy which enables more electricity
to be generated
By lowering the control rods all the way to the bottom of the
nuclear reactor, all neutrons produced by fission reactions will
be absorbed and so no further reactions will occur, stopping
the nuclear reactor from producing energy.
It slows neutrons down so they can be absorbed by a uranium
nucleus and result in another fission reaction.
Boron
Graphite
Benefits: no direct CO2 emissions
Disadvantages: public perception, risk, safety issues and
radioactive waste disposal, use of nuclear materials in
terrorism.
Thermal energy from the nuclear reactor turns the water into
steam. This turns a turbine which in turn turns a generator (a
coil of wire inside a magnetic field), generating electricity.
Reaction caused when the nuclei of light atoms like Hydrogen
join together to make the nucleus of a heavier atom like
helium.
2 hydrogen nuclei join/fuse together to form helium nuclei
which releases thermal energy
In stars
At very high temperatures, very high pressures and densities,
the hydrogen nuclei need to collide at very high speeds so
they have lots of kinetic energy.
Both helium nuclei have positive charges
This means they repel each other
This reduces possibility of successful collisions to form helium,
a neutron and also the energy
The rate of fusion is too small to be useful for generating
electricity.
It is impossible to raise the temperature to the required level
for enough reactant to make the reaction self-sustaining.
When it can be validated
The procedure has been checked to confirm consistent results
by other reputable scientists /organisations / peers.
Topic 6
What is the unit of activity of a radioactive
isotope?
Why is ionising radiation dangerous?
What precautions should be taken when handling
radioactive substances?
The nuclear power industry creates a lot of
radioactive waste, what are the options for
disposal?
The Bequerel (Bq) is the number of emissions every second.
It can lead to tissue damage, burns, DNA mutations and cancer.
Handle with tongs, protective clothing, never point a source at yourself
or others. The risk is reduced with increased distance.
Bury - probably best.
Dump at sea - not preferable because over time the containers will
corrode and leak radiation into the sea which could then get into the
food chain.
The products of nuclear fission are radioactive.
Why is this problem?
What are some of the risks of using nuclear power?
What are some precautions we can take to reduce
the risk of using nuclear energy to generate
electricity?
What are some of the advantages and
disadvantages of nuclear power?
What is half life?
How can we calculate half life on a graph?
A sample of air contains 6 mg of radon. Radon has
a half-life of 4 days.
Calculate the mass of the radon remaining after 8
days.
Where does background radiation come from?
Why is radon gas a problem?
How do you measure the radioactivity of a sample?
The scientist takes several readings of background
radiation. Explain why this is necessary to improve
the accuracy of the investigation
Give 5 uses of radioactivity and say which type of
ionising radiation is used in each.
Explain why gamma radiation is used for sterilising
equipment and irradiating food
Launch into space - expensive and not preferable because if the launch
goes wrong it will scatter radioactive material over a large area of earth.
Some remain radioactive for a many years. Long term storage and
disposal is problematic.
Rods are radioactive which can cause cancer
Danger of accident during transport
Workers could be exposed to radiation
Can damage environment if not properly contained
Materials being disposed of are radioactive for long periods of time
Water causing corrosion / leaks of radioactive waste
Security from terrorist activity
Leakage of radioactivity
Contamination of ground, sea water, lakes, rivers, crops, fish, animals,
drinking water
Long term storage, underground /under the sea
Radiation shielding, lead/steel/concrete/ containers, sealed in glass.
Shielding to protect people from radiation
Security can be used to prevent public access to nuclear power stations
Vehicle transporting radioactive materials need to be protected against
damage
Special disposal facilities needed, not landfill sites
Need to be kept secure while decaying to safe levels
Some materials have a shorter half-life, so long term storage is not
necessary
Advantages:
+Nuclear power plants do not produce carbon dioxide
Disadvantages:
-Processes used to make fuel rods require energy and generating this
energy may cause carbon dioxide to be produced
-Nuclear waste has to be stored for tens of thousands of years, nothing
can be leaked during this time
-Nuclear power is considered unsafe as radioactive material can be
spread over cities and towns thousands of miles away
The time it takes for half the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay.
1) Identify the initial count rate (let’s say it is 80)
2) Divide this by 2 (80/2 = 40)
3) Draw a line on the graph from this value (40)
4) When you meet the line of best fit, draw a line to the x-axis
5) This is the half-life
Calculation of number of half-lives: 8 ÷ 4 = 2 (half lives)
Evaluation of mass: 6 ÷ 2 = 3 ÷ 2 = 1.5 (mg)
Radioactive rocks (earth), cosmic radiation (space), hospitals and
industrial uses.
Released from some rocks and increases background radiation in some
regions of the UK
Take a reading of the background radiation (b)
Measure the radioactivity of the sample (s)
Subtract the background from the sample to get it’s radioactivity (r)
R=b-s
More accurate
Hard to measure a small activity
Background radiation affects readings
Need to find difference of two small quantities
Can test smaller samples
1) Smoke alarms – alpha
2) Irradiating food – gamma
3) Sterilisation of equipment – gamma
4) Tracing and gauging thickness – beta
5) Diagnosis and treatment of cancer – gamma.
Gamma radiation kills microbes/bacteria/viruses on equipment and
food.
Describe how smoke alarms work
Explain how beta radiation is used to gauge
thickness in materials
Describe how gamma radiation is used to detect
cancer.
Describe how gamma radiation is used to treat
cancers
This prevents diseases being spread in hospitals and keeps food fresher
for longer
Alpha particles ionise air particles which completes the circuit in the
smoke alarm. When smoke particles are produced, they absorb the
alpha radiation which prevents the circuit from working and sets off the
smoke alarm.
Beta radiation is passed between paper, if the paper is too thick it will
absorb more beta radiation and the count rate being detected will
decrease. This increases the pressure of the rollers which makes the
paper thinner, allowing beta radiation to pass through it again.
The opposite occurs if the paper is too thin.
Detect cancer: A tracer is taken by a person and is observed by a
gamma camera. The gamma radiation shows areas of concerns and as it
is very penetrating, the gamma radiation passes straight out of the
body- it doesn’t stay inside the person which prevents damage to their
body.
Gamma radiation beams are targeted at cancerous cells from many
angles to reduce radiating surrounding healthy cells. The radiation kills
the cancer cells.
P2 Keywords and Definitions
Keyword
Discharged
Earthing
Electrostatic charge
Induced charge
Induction
Neutrons
Neutrons
Nucleus
Protons
Static electricity
Alternating current
Ammeter
Amperes (A)
Coulombs (C)
Current
Diodes
Direct current
Filament lamps
In parallel
In series
Definition
To release a charge by a flow of electrons to earth (or neutral).
Many electrical appliances have metal cases, including cookers, washing
machines and refrigerators. The earth wire creates a safe route for the
current to flow through, if the live wire touches the casing.
The electric charge at rest on the surface of an insulated body (which
establishes and adjacent electrostatic field).
To make an object to become charged.
The action by which a body possessing a charge of static electricity develops
a charge of static electricity of the opposite character in a neighbouring
body.
A neutron is a subatomic particle contained in the atomic nucleus. It has no
net electric charge, unlike the proton's positive electric charge.
Particles in the nucleus with a mass of 1 and no charge,
The central and most important part of an object, movement, or group,
forming the basis for its activity and growth.
A stable subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a positive
electric charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron.
A stationary electric charge, typically produced by friction that causes sparks
or crackling or the attraction of dust or hair.
In alternating current, the electrons don’t move steadily forward. Instead,
they just move back and forth.
An instrument for measuring electric current
Equivalent to one coulomb per second, formally defined to be the constant
current
The unit of electrical charge equal to the quantity of charge transferred in
one second by a steady current
An electric current is a flow of electric charge through an electrical
conductor.
Current will only flow through a diode in one direction only
An electric current that flows continuously in a single direction
As the temperature of the filament increases, the resistance increases
making a curve.
When the components of a circuit are parallel to each other
when the components of a circuit are next to each other
Ions
Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
Ohms (Ω)
Parallel circuit
An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one
or more electrons.
An LDR is a special type of resistor that changes its resistance depending on
how much light there is
Resistance unit
A closed circuit in which the current divides into different paths before
recombining to complete the circuit
Potential difference
The difference of electrical potential between two points, measured in volts.
Power
Resistance
Series circuit
Air resistance
Displacement
The rate at which work is performed, or energy converted.
Anything in the circuit which slows the flow down.
A circuit that has its parts connected serially
Similar to an LDR but its resistance depends on temperature, high temp low
resistance and vice versa.
Controls the magnitude of resistance passing through the resistor
An electromotive force or potential difference (unit).
An instrument for measuring electric potential in volts.
The unit that measures power. Equal to one joule per second. A watt is
equal to current x voltage.
The rate of change of speed.
A force that exerts a force on another object. It often comes in pairs with the
Reaction Force, forming an action-reaction pairs.
A force caused by air when an object is moving.
How far something has moved in a straight line.
Distance-time graphs
A graph recording distance travelled over a particular time.
Thermistors
Variable resistor
Voltage
Voltmeter
Watts (W)
Acceleration
Action force
Drag
Force
Free-body diagram
Gradient
Gravitational field strength
Interact
Mass
Reaction force
Resultant
Speed
Terminal velocity
Vector
Velocity
Weight
Air bags
Braking distance
Crumple zones
Crumple zones
A resistance to motion when an object moves through a medium. E.g. a boat
moving through water.
Strength or energy as an attribute of physical action or movement
A pictorial device, often a rough working sketch, used by engineers and
physicists to analyse the forces and moments acting on a body.
How steep a line is.
Gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the gravitational force per
unit mass at that point.
Act in such a way as to have an effect on another
The amount of an object there is.
A force that acts in the opposite direction to an action force.
The result of two or more forces acting conjointly.
How fast something is moving without a concern for the direction.
Where the downward force of gravity equals the force of drag.
A quantity that has a direction and size.
How fast something is moving in a particular direction.
The force with which an object near the Earth or another celestial body is
attracted toward the centre of the body by gravity
A safety device in a car, consisting of a bag that inflates automatically in an
accident in order to increase the time it takes the person to slow down and
reduce the force on their body.
The braking distance is the distance taken to stop once the brakes are
applied.
A part of a motor vehicle, esp. the extreme front and rear, designed to
crumple easily in a crash and absorb the main force of an impact.
A part of a motor vehicle, esp. the extreme front and rear, designed to
crumple easily in a crash and absorb the main force of an impact (by
increasing the time it takes the vehicle to stop).
Energy transferred
Nucleons
The amount of energy being transferred from one place to another.
The resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over
another.
The energy that must be used against gravitational forces to move a particle
of mass.
The measurement of work done and energy transferred.
This is the energy something has when moving.
This is the energy something has when moving.
The tendency of the object to keep moving in the same direction
How quickly work is being done and therefore how quickly energy is being
transferred.
The time that goes by between a stimulus and the response to it.
A safety device used in a car or plane to cause you to slow down over a
longer period of time, thus reducing the force on the body in an accident.
Stopping distance is the distance it takes for a car to stop from a specific
speed.
The thinking distance is the distance travelled in between the driver realising
he needs to brake
An amount or measurement that is related to a direction. Velocity,
acceleration, and weight are vector quantities
The measurement of power, it is equal to one joule per second.
The amount of energy transferred doing something.
Ionising radiation containing 2 neutrons and 2 protons (helium nucleus).
The amount of protons that an element has.
High-speed electrons that are emitted from an unstable nucleus
A reaction which causes many others one after the other.
Structures which absorb the neutrons, these are placed between the fuel
rods in the core
Where the fuel and control rods are placed and the reaction is occurring.
The remaining nuclide left over from radioactive decay.
When the nucleus of an atom breaks down causing it to emit radiation
High frequency electromagnetic waves emitted by some unstable nuclei and
so travel at the speed of light
An atom which has gained or lost electrons.
Radiation that causes atoms to lose electrons and become ions
A different atomic form of the same element with the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons.
The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Something that slows down a nuclear reaction by slowing/absorbing
neutrons.
A nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits spontaneously or on
impact with another particle, with the release of energy
A nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form
a heavier nucleus with the release of energy
This transforms the energy contained in the nuclei of uranium and
plutonium atom, into thermal energy using nuclear fission
The number of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom. An
alternative name for mass number.
The particles found in the nucleus are called this.
Penetration distance
How far ionising radiation can travel through a substance.
Proton number
The number of protons that an element has.
When a substance has an unstable nucleus, resulting in release or nuclear
radiation.
Friction
Gravitational potential energy
Joules (J)
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy
Momentum
Power
Reaction time
Seat belt
Stopping distance
Thinking distance
Vector quantity
Watts (W)
Work
Alpha particles
Atomic number
Beta particles
Chain reaction
Control rods
Core
Daughter nuclei
Decays
Gamma rays
Ion
Ionising radiation
Isotopes
Mass number
Moderator
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear reactors
Nucleon number
Radioactive
Random
Without a fixed time or pattern.
Sub-atomic particles
The smaller particles that make up an atom.
Unstable
Activity
Background count
An atom which has too many neutrons could be said to be this.
How much radiation is produced.
The amount of background radiation.
Background radiation
Small amounts of radiation in the atmosphere
Becquerel (Bq)
Cosmic rays
Count rate
A unit of measurement, number of nuclear decays per second.
The radiation emitted from space.
Number of clicks per second or minute of ionising radiation
Electrostatic repulsion
When two of the same charges repel each other
Geiger-Müller (GM) tube
Measures intensity of radiation.
Half-life
Hazards
The time taken for half the undecayed nuclei to decay.
Dangers to a person or object
Sealed in glass canisters and concreted over until the radiation becomes low
level.
High level waste (HLW)
Intermediate level waste (ILW)
Contained in metal cylinders because they become radioactive.
Irradiated
To expose to radiation. For example to when you expose food to gamma
rays to kill microorganisms you are irradiating the food.
Low level waste (LLW)
Not as radioactive, buried and compacted in special sites.
Mutation
Peer-reviewed
Radioactive
Radioactive decay
The changing of a structure, resulting in a variant
Reviewed by someone with knowledge on the subject
Something that emits ionising radiation
When an unstable radioactive nuclei decays and emits ionising radiation.
Made up of radioactive daughter nuclei and radioactive isotopes formed
when the materials in the core absorb neutrons
The controlled use of high energy X-rays to treat many different types of
cancer. In some cases, radiotherapy can also be used to treat non-cancerous
tumours.
A gas emitted produced by the natural decay of radioactive sources. E.g.
Uranium.
A situation involving exposure to danger
To make something free from bacteria or other living microorganisms using
Radiation
These are used for tracking substances such as: -Find leaks or blockages in
underground pipes -Find the route of underground pipes -Track the dispersal
of waste
To check or prove the accuracy of something
Radioactive waste
Radiotherapy
Radon
Risk
Sterilised
Tracer
Validated
P3 Core Questions
Topic 1
How is physics used to diagnose medical
problems?
How is physics used to treat medical problems?
Name one type of ionising radiation used in
medicine.
X-ray imaging, CAT scans, PET scans, Endoscopes and
ultrasound scanning.
Radiotherapy with gamma rays for cancer, lasers for skin and
eyes, ultrasound for kidney stones and muscle problems.
Radiotherapy with gamma rays.
Name one type of non-ionising radiation used in
medicine.
What is radiation?
How is intensity affected by distance?
How is intensity affected by the medium?
Intensity = Power ÷ Area. What are the units?
If you were given the intensity and the power,
how could you calculate the area?
What type of lens is a converging lens?
Endoscopes using visible light.
Any type of energy that spreads out from a source, particles or
waves.
Intensity decreases with distance (inverse square law applies
here).
Different materials absorb different amounts of energy and so
affect intensity differently.
Intensity W/m2. Power W and area m2
Area = Power ÷ Intensity
A lens that is thicker in the middle to refract the light rays
together and focus them at a point behind the lens. It will
always have a positive focal length.
What type of lens is a diverging lens?
A lens that is thinner in the middle to refract the light rays
away from each other and focus them at a point in front of the
lens. It will always have a negative focal length.
How is the power of a convex lens related to its
shape?
How is the power of a lens related to its focal
length?
Power of a lens = 1÷ Focal length. What are the
units?
In the lens equation, what do f, u and v stand for
and in which unit are they all measured?
What is a real image?
The thicker the lens, the more powerful it is.
What is a virtual image?
An image formed on the same side of the lens as the object. It
is magnified and the right way up. It cannot be projected onto
a screen and the focal length is always shown as negative.
The more powerful the lens, the shorter the focal length.
Power of a lens is measured in dioptres (D). The focal length is
measured in metres (m).
F= focal length, u = object distance, v = image distance. All
measured in metres (m).
An image that can be formed on a screen that is on the
opposite side of the lens to the object. It is magnified and
inverted with a positive focal length.
Name the labelled parts of the eye:
How is light focused on the retina?
Light enters the eye through the cornea where it is refracted.
Light travels through the pupil and is further refracted by the
lens to focus on the retina.
What is the job of the iris?
What is the job of the ciliary muscles?
What is the near point?
What is the far point?
What is short sight?
What is long sight?
How can short sight be corrected with glasses?
How can long sight be corrected with glasses?
Apart from spectacles, what other treatments are
available for sight problems?
Draw a labelled diagram to show reflection from a
mirror.
Draw a labelled diagram to show refraction of
light as it leaves a glass block into air.
Draw a labelled diagram to show the path of light
with an angle of incidence equal to the critical
angle as it leaves a glass block into air.
Draw a labelled diagram to show the path of light
with an angle of incidence greater than the critical
angle as it travels through a glass block in air.
To control the size of the pupil and therefore control the
amount of light entering reaching the retina.
They contract and relax to change the shape of the lens, from
thicker to thinner respectively, and so refract the light correctly
to focus it on the retina, when looking at near and far objects
respectively.
The point nearest the eye at which an object can be focused.
25cm for a normal adult.
The maximum distance a normal eye can see things. It is said to
be at infinity.
Can see close objects but not able to clearly see objects at a
distance. It is often caused because the eyeball is too long or
the cornea is too curved.
Cannot see close up but can focus at a distance. This can be
caused by old age because the lens becomes stiffer over time
but can be because the eyeball is too short.
Use diverging lens in the glasses.
Use converging lens in the glasses.
Contact lenses are lightweight and relatively inexpensive but
they carry a risk of infection if not properly cleaned.
Laser surgery is an expensive option and has the risk of
complications but after no glasses or lenses need to be worn at
all.
Explain how to calculate the critical angle using
Snell’s law
What are the two things that change in
refraction?
How is density related to the speed of light?
When the critical angle is the angle of incidence, the light will
be refracted along the edge of the block and so, the angle of
refraction is 90 degrees. Sin 90 = 1.
Sin c = the refractive index of the material the light is going into
÷ the refractive index of the material the light is coming from.
Speed and direction.
The greater the density of the material, the slower the light will
travel and the more energy will be absorbed.
How is total internal reflection used in optical
fibres?
Where are endoscopes used in diagnosis?
Where are endoscopes used in treatment?
Where is ultrasound used in diagnosis?
Where is ultrasound used in treatment?
A bundle of fibres
is used. Light is
sent along some
of the fibres, at an
angle greater than
the critical angle
of glass, from the
light source and it
travels along the
fibres by total
internal reflection
as shown. The
reflected image
travels back to the
eye along other
fibres.
Visual inspection of internal organs for example in
colonoscopy.
Biopsies can be taken and eye hole surgery performed.
Scanning during pregnancy and to locate kidney stones, cysts
etc in internal organs
To break up kidney stones and in treating muscle problems.
Topic 2
What are X-rays?
What is the process where electrons are boiled off a
cathode (filament) called?
Why is a voltage needed across the cathode (filament)
in a simple electron gun?
Why is a high voltage (potential difference) needed
between the cathode (-) and the anode (+)?
Why is there a vacuum in an electron gun?
What name is given to the beam of electrons in an
electron gun?
High energy electromagnetic waves. They are a type of
ionising radiation. They have a high frequency and a short
wavelength.
Thermionic emission.
To provide the ionisation energy to the electrons using the
heating effect of current.
To accelerate the electrons by repelling them away from
the cathode and towards the anode.
So there are no particles to get in the way. Electrons are
accelerated straight across and their kinetic energy is not
wasted.
Cathode rays.
If the anode (+) is used as a metal target, what are
produced?
Why are X-rays produced when the anode (+) is used
as a metal target?
What is an electric current?
Why are cathode rays equivalent to an electric
current?
In the equation I = N x q state what each letter stands
for and the units each is measured in.
What unit is kinetic energy measured in?
Which two equations for kinetic energy link together?
In the electron gun question ½ mv2 = eV state each
letter stands for and the units each is measured in.
What does the intensity of radiation, like X-rays,
depend on?
How does distance from the source affect intensity?
Why does the medium travelled through affect
intensity?
How does the thickness of a material affect intensity?
How are X-rays used in CAT scans?
How are X-rays used in fluoroscopes?
What are the risks of using X-rays?
What are the benefits of using X-rays?
What do ECG’s measure?
What does the action potential cause a muscle cell to
do?
What happens to a muscle cell after an action
potential has passed?
Describe
this ECG
trace.
In the equation: frequency = 1/time period state the
units for each part.
What is a pacemaker used for?
X-rays
The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into X-rays
on collision.
The rate of flow of negative charge.
Cathode rays are a beam of electrons, electrons are
negatively charged particles. You have a number of
negative charges flowing per second.
I = Current in amps (A)
N = Number of particles per second
q = Charge on each particle in coulombs (C).
Joules (J)
KE = ½ mv2 and KE = eV so that
½ mv2 = eV
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
v = velocity in meters per second (m/s)
e = charge on an electron in coulombs (C)
1.6x10-19 C
V = Accelerating potential difference in volts (V)
Distance from the source and the medium (material)
travelled through.
The inverse square law explains how if the distance from
the source is doubled, the intensity is ¼. This is because the
area covered is 4 times as big.
Some materials absorb more than others, generally the
more dense a material, the more it absorbs and the less
radiation gets through so it is less intense.
The thicker the material the less the intensity because
more radiation will be absorbed by thicker materials.
To produce 2D slices through the body by rotating X-rays
around the area being investigated.
To create moving images of the inside of the body by
placing the patient between an x-ray source and a
fluorescent screen.
X-rays are an ionising form of radiation and so they can
cause molecules in living cells to be ionised. This may lead
to tissue damage of cancer.
Allows proper diagnosis to plan treatment better. It is noninvasive and so is quick to perform and does not require
surgery.
Electrocardiograms measure the action potentials that pass
through the atria and the ventricles of the heart.
Contract.
Relaxes.
P is where the atria contract because of an action potential.
QRS section is where the ventricles contract because they
have an action potential through them and the atria are
relaxing because their action potential has passed. T is
where the ventricles relax because the action potential
through them has passed. The time for 1 heart beat can be
found by measuring from R to the next spike on the x-axis.
Frequency in hertz (Hz), Time period in seconds (s). But it is
often useful to give answers in beats per minute and so the
frequency has to be multiplied by 60.
It is a device that is used to regulate the heart beat.
How does a pacemaker work?
What is a pulse oximeter?
How does a pulse oximeter work?
Why might a radioactive technique like PET scanning
or CAT scanning not be used?
What are the properties of alpha radiation?
What are the properties of beta radiation?
What are the properties of gamma radiation?
What are the properties of positron radiation?
What are the properties of neutron radiation?
What is the relationship between the number of
protons and the number of electrons in an atom?
What happens in beta minus decay in terms of
particles?
What happens in beta plus decay in terms of
particles?
What is the effect on the mass number (nucleon
number) in alpha decay?
What is the effect on the mass number (nucleon
number) in gamma decay?
What is the effect on the mass number (nucleon
number) in neutron decay?
What is the effect on the atomic number (proton
number) in alpha decay?
It uses small electric impulses to stimulate the heart to
beat.
It is a device that can be fitted to the finger that allows the
% of oxygen in the blood to be measured and the heart
rate too.
2 types of light (red and infra red) are sent through the
finger and detected on the other side. The amount of light
absorbed is measured and this depends on the colour of
the blood. The colour of the blood depends on the oxygen
content.
Topic 3
If a women is pregnant, if the side effects are greater than
the benefits for the long-term health of the patient or the
cost cannot be justified.
Alpha particles are identical to a helium nucleus as they are
made up from 2 protons and 2 neutrons. They have a charge
of +2 and a relative mass of 4. They are highly ionising but
not very penetrating. They are affected by electric and
magnetic fields.
Beta particles are high energy electrons that are released
from the nucleus of the atom. They have a charge of +1 and
a relative mass of 1/2000. They are ionising and fairly
penetrating. They are affected by electric and magnetic
fields.
Gamma is a high frequency electromagnetic wave. These
waves have no charge or mass. They are weakly ionising but
very penetrating. They are not affected by electric and
magnetic fields.
Positron particles are the anti-particle to the electron. They
are released from the nucleus of the atom and have a charge
of +1, They have a relative mass of 1/2000. They are ionising
and fairly penetrating. They are affected by electric and
magnetic fields.
Neutrons can be released from the nucleus of some
radioactive isotopes. They have no charge. They have a
relative mass of 1. They are ionising and penetrating. They
are not affected by electric and magnetic fields. They are
called thermal neutrons.
They are equal and the atom has no overall charge.
A neutron becomes a proton + an electron. This causes the
atomic number (proton number) to increase by 1 while the
mass number (nucleon number) stays the same.
A proton becomes a neutron + a positron. This causes the
atomic number (proton number) to decrease by 1 while the
mass number (nucleon number) stays the same.
Decreases by 4.
Nothing.
Decreases by 1.
Decreases by 2.
What is the effect on the atomic number (proton
number) in gamma decay?
What is the effect on the atomic number (proton
number) in neutron decay?
In a nuclear equation what do you need to balance?
What shape graph do you get when you plot stable
nuclei on a N-Z graph (Number of neutron against
number of protons)?
With reference to the curve of stability, where
would you find a radio-isotope that decays by
emitting alpha radiation?
With reference to the curve of stability, where
would you find a radio-isotope that decays by
emitting beta + radiation?
With reference to the curve of stability, where
would you find a radio-isotope that decays by
emitting beta - radiation?
What are protons and neutrons made up of?
Using quarks show the mass of a proton is 1.
Using quarks show the mass of a neutron is 1.
Using quarks show the charge of a proton is +1.
Using quarks show that a neutron has no charge.
What happens in beta minus decay in terms of
quarks?
What happens in beta plus decay in terms of quarks?
When is gamma radiation emitted?
What are the dangers of ionising radiation?
What precautions are taken to ensure the safety of
patients and staff involving in using radiation
medically?
Nothing.
Nothing.
The mass number (nucleon number) before with the total
mass numbers (nucleon numbers) of the new isotope and
released particles after and the atomic number (proton
number) before with the total atomic numbers (proton
numbers) of the new isotope and released particles after.
A curve called the curve of stability.
Above 82 protons and not on the curve.
Below 82 protons and below the curve. This isotope will
have too few neutrons (or too many protons) to be stable.
Below 82 protons and above the curve. This isotope will
have too many neutrons (or too few protons) to be stable.
Quarks. A proton is two up quarks and a down quark (uud).
A neutron is two down quarks and an up quark (ddu).
Up quarks have a relative mass of 1/3. Down quarks have a
relative mass of 1/3. A proton is two up quarks and a down
quark (uud). 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 1
Up quarks have a relative mass of 1/3. Down quarks have a
relative mass of 1/3. A neutron is two down quarks and an
up quark (ddu). 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 1
Up quarks have a charge of +2/3. Down quarks have a
charge of -1/3. A proton is two up quarks and a down quark
(uud).
2/3 + 2/3 -1/3 = +1
Up quarks have a charge of +2/3. Down quarks have a
charge of -1/3. A neutron is two down quarks and an up
quark (ddu).
2/3 – 1/3 – 1/3 = 0
A down quark becomes an up quark. This means that a
neutron becomes a proton + an electron. This causes the
atomic number (proton number) to increase by 1 while the
mass number (nucleon number) stays the same.
An up quark becomes a down quark. A proton becomes a
neutron + a positron. This causes the atomic number (proton
number) to decrease by 1 while the mass number (nucleon
number) stays the same.
When a radioisotope undergoes decay by alpha or beta (+ or
-) emission, the nuclear rearrangement usually results in the
excess energy being released as gamma radiation.
In low doses, can cause cancer as there may be damage to
DNA. In high doses, can cause skin burns, radiation sickness
and even death.
Radiation is monitored, dose and exposure time are limited.
People are also protected with screening and protective
clothing.
How are radiotherapy and brachytherapy similar?
Both use radioactive isotopes to destroy cancer cells by
damaging the DNA of the cancerous cells.
How are radiotherapy and brachytherapy different? Radiotherapy is an external treatment. High energy gamma
radiation or X-rays are used over a period of time to target
cancerous cells using a multiple beam approach to limit the
damage to healthy cells by reducing the intensity of the
radiation through them while maintaining the higher
intensity needed at the site. Brachytherapy is an internal
treatment which is only used in specialised cases. It has the
advantage of treating the cancerous cells more directly but
requires surgery.
What is meant by palliative care?
The use of radiotherapy to alleviate the severity of the
symptoms and so reduce pain or extend life expectancy by
reducing the progress of the disease but it does not offer a
cure. It is used to improve the quality of life for the
terminally ill patient.
How are radioactive sources used in medical tracers? It is possible to trace the blood flow through an organ by
being injected into the blood stream and monitored using a
gamma camera. Gamma sources are used so that the
radiation can escape from the body and be traced. The dose
is kept as small as possible to minimise the effect of the
ionising radiation. The half-life of the source needs to be
short enough to make sure the patient does not remain
radioactive but long enough to ensure the full investigation
can be performed. Tracers are often tied to a compound
that is attracted to cancerous cells like glucose.
What is a PET scan?
Why do radioactive sources used in PET scanners
need to be produced near to the scanner?
Positron emission tomography can be used to detect small
changes in cells and identify rapidly growing cells, such as
cancer cells. Fluorine-18 is used because it decays by
positron emission. When the emitted positrons collide with
electrons the two particles are annihilated releasing two
gamma rays in opposite directions. A ring of gamma
detectors detect the gamma rays and can calculate the point
they were emitted from in the body. The radioisotope needs
to have a short half-life, F-18 has a half-life of 110 minutes.
This is short enough to make sure the patient does not
remain radioactive for long after the PET scan but is long
enough to ensure the full investigation can be performed.
PET images and CT images can be combined to provide a
very useful diagnostic tool.
The half-life of the source needs to be short so that the
patient is not still radioactive after the scan and so it needs
to be produced nearby and relatively near to the time of the
scan so that it remains radioactive for the duration of the
scan. F-18 has a half-life of 110 minutes.
Topic 4
Telescopes enabled astronomers to develop
better explanations about our solar system
and seismometers allow geologists to
Particle accelerators can be used to accelerate charged particles to
very high energies and smash them together in an effort to learn
about the fundamental particles, like quarks, that make up our
predict earthquake locations. How do
particle accelerators allow physicists to
develop better explanations about the
physical world?
Why is there collaboration between
countries in the area of particle physics?
When an object moves in a circle at a
constant speed, is the velocity constant?
Explain!
When an object moves in a circle at a
constant speed, why is it accelerating?
When an object moves in a circle at a
constant speed, what causes the
acceleration? (what must there be for an
object to move in a circle?)
What is this resultant force called?
What direction is the centripetal force in?
How do cyclotrons cause charged particles
to move in a circular or spiral path?
What is the relationship between the
number of times a charged particle spirals
before leaving the cyclotron and the amount
of energy they have?
If certain stable isotopes are bombarded
with protons from the cyclotron what is
made?
What is the nuclear equation for the
bombardment of oxygen-18 with a high
energy proton?
What is the stated in the law of conservation
of energy?
What is the stated in the law of conservation
of momentum?
Why is direction important in momentum
problems?
What are the units for momentum?
What is an inelastic collision?
What is an elastic collision?
What type of collision conserves kinetic
energy?
What type of collision conserves
momentum?
Which equation is used to calculate kinetic
energy? State all the units.
Which equation is used to calculate
momentum?
universe. Physicists can study the nature of matter, energy, space
and time using particle accelerators like the LHC (Large Hadron
Collider).
To answer the sorts of questions they are investigating at CERN
requires the sharing of expertise, skills and knowledge. Scientists
and engineers from over 100 countries and in hundreds of
universities are involved. In addition to this, the cost of particle
accelerators like the LHC is huge, the initial cost was over £3 billion,
this collaboration also shares the costs.
No. The direction is changing and velocity is a vector quantity, the
direction is important.
There is a change of velocity over time, therefore the object is
accelerating.
A resultant force.
Centripetal force.
Towards the centre of the circle.
A magnetic field (in the dees) forces the particles to move in a circle.
The particles are accelerated by an electric field (in the gap between
the dees) and the increased speed causes them to move outward
from the centre in a spiral path.
The more times the particle spirals, the greater the amount of
kinetic energy because they increases in speed with each spiral.
Radioactive isotopes that can be used in medicine. For example the
radioisotope fluorine-18 is produced from oxygen-18 in this way.
That the TOTAL amount of energy before and after a transformation
is the same.
The total momentum before a collision is equal to the total
momentum after the collision.
Momentum is a vector quantity, it has both size and direction.
kgm/s (kilogram metres per second)
A collision where some of the kinetic energy is wasted as thermal
energy and sound.
A perfect collision where all the kinetic energy before is transferred
to the kinetic energy after.
Only elastic collisions.
Both elastic and inelastic collisions.
KE= ½ m v2 Units are: KE (J) joules, m (kg) kilograms and v (m/s)
metres per second
Momentum = mass x velocity
What is produced when fluorine-18 decays?
A positron and the fluorine-18 becomes the stable isotope oxygen18.
What is the nuclear equation for the
radioactive decay of fluorine-18?
What happens when a positron meets an
electron?
Where is the annihilation of positrons and
electrons used?
The particles are annihilated causing 2 gamma rays to be emitted in
opposite directions.
In PET scanners (positron emission tomography) for the diagnosis
and monitoring of cancer.
What is a PET scan?
Positron emission tomography can be used to detect small changes
in cells and identify rapidly growing cells, such as cancer cells.
Fluorine-18 is used because it decays by positron emission. When
the emitted positrons collide with electrons the two particles are
annihilated releasing two gamma rays in opposite directions. A ring
of gamma detectors detect the gamma rays and can calculate the
point they were emitted from in the body. The radioisotope needs
to have a short half-life, F-18 has a half-life of 110 minutes. This is
short enough to make sure the patient does not remain radioactive
for long after the PET scan but is long enough to ensure the full
investigation can be performed.
PET images and CT images can be combined to provide a very useful
diagnostic tool.
The half-life of the source needs to be short so that the patient is
not still radioactive after the scan and so it needs to be produced
nearby and relatively near to the time of the scan so that it remains
radioactive for the duration of the scan. F-18 has a half-life of 110
minutes.
The electron and the positron collide head on, they have the same
mass and are both moving with the same speed but in opposite
directions. The overall momentum is therefore zero. The gamma
rays are emitted in opposite directions with equal and opposite
momentum, so the overall momentum is zero too.
The two particles have opposite charges. Overall charge is therefore
zero before the collision. After the collision gamma rays are
produced that have no charge. After the collision the charge is also
zero.
Einstein’s equation E=mc2 shows that mass can be converted into
energy and energy into mass.
When the particles are annihilated, the masses of both particles are
converted into energy. The 2 gamma rays that are produced have
energy equal to the mass of the 2 original particles. Mass energy (E)
is conserved.
Why do radioactive sources used in PET
scanners need to be produced near to the
scanner?
How is the annihilation of an electron and a
positron an example of the conservation of
momentum?
How is the annihilation of an electron and a
positron an example of the conservation of
charge?
What does Einstein’s equation E=mc2 show?
How is the annihilation of an electron and a
positron an example of the conservation of
mass energy (E from the Einstein equation)?
Use a nuclear equation to show the
annihilation of a positron and electron.
0
e
1
+
0
e
-1
0
2 0γ
Use the kinetic energy equation to show the
conservation of mass energy in an
annihilation of a positron and electron.
Before the collision:
E = 2 x 9.11 x 10-31 Kg x (3 x 108 m/s)2
E = 1.64 x 10-13 J
After the collision:
2 gamma rays are produced so each has an energy of :
E = 1.64 x 10-13 J / 2 = 8.2 x 10-14 J
Because the total energy is conserved
Topic 5
Describe the movement of the
particles in a solid.
Describe the movement of the
particles in a liquid.
Describe the movement of the
particles in a gas.
How is the pressure of a gas related
to the motion of the particles?
What is absolute zero?
Describe the movement of the
particles at absolute zero.
How do you convert a temperature
in ◦C into K?
How do you convert a temperature
in K into ◦C?
What is the relationship between
kinetic energy of the particles in a
gas and its temperature in Kelvin?
What is the relationship between
volume of a gas and its
temperature in Kelvin, for a fixed
mass and pressure of gas?
What is the relationship between
volume of a gas and its pressure,
for a fixed mass and temperature
of gas?
In the ideal gas equation what does
the P stand for and what units can
it be measured in?
The particles are just vibrating in their fixed positions, close together in nice
neat rows.
The particles are moving past one another, close together in a random
pattern.
The particles are moving very quickly in random directions and they are far
apart form each other.
As the particles get more kinetic energy they move more. As the particles get
faster they hit the sides of the container more often and harder. This causes
an increase in pressure.
The temperature at which particles have no kinetic energy and so no
pressure. It is the temperature of 0K or -273◦C.
They are close together in neat rows and they are stationary. They do not
move at all.
+273
-273
As a gas is heated up and temperature increases the particles gain more
energy. With more kinetic energy the particles move faster. Temperature (in
K) and kinetic energy are directly proportional.
As a gas is heated up and temperature increases the particles will need more
space to maintain the same pressure. This is because they have more energy
and so move faster and if the volume did not increase they would hit the sides
of the container more often. Temperature and volume are directly
proportional.
As the volume of a gas decreases, the particles would hit the walls more often
and so the pressure would increase. Volume and pressure ate inversely
proportional to each other.
Pressure. Pascals Pa or N/m2
In the ideal gas equation what does
the T stand for and what units can
it be measured in?
In the ideal gas equation what does
the V stand for and what units can
it be measured in?
In the ideal gas equation what are
the numbers 1 and 2 for?
Why are the gases that are used in
medicine stored in special bottles?
Temperature. Kelvin K and only K!!
Volume. m3 or cm3 as long as the same throughout the calculation.
1 = before and 2 = after.
To save storage space. By compressing the gas more gas can be squashed into
a smaller volume. This is done by increasing the pressure above atmospheric
pressure of
100 000 Pa.
P3 Keywords and Definitions
Topic 1
Angle of incidence
Angle of reflection
Ciliary muscles
Converge
Converging lens
Cornea
Critical angle
Dioptre (D)
Diverege
Diverging lens
Endoscope
Far point
Focal length
Intensity
Inverse square law
Iris
Laser correction
Law of reflection
Lens
Lens equation
Long sight
Near point
Optical fibres
Optical power
Principal focus (or focal
point)
Pupil
Radiation
The angle between the normal and the ray when it hits a surface
The angle between the normal and the reflected ray when it leaves the surface
Muscles that help to change the shape of the eye lens
Bring closer together
A lens that brings light rays together (convex lens)
The curved layer over the front of the eye
The angle of incidence in a denser medium that gives an angle of refraction equal to 90◦
A unit for the optical power of a lens
Spread out further way
A lens that spread light out (concave lens)
An instrument used by doctors to look inside the body
The furthest point the eye can see clearly
The distance between the centre of the lens and principal focus
The power of radiation per unit area
A relationship between quantities where doubling one quantity reduces the related
quantity by a factor of 4
The coloured part of the eye that controls the amount of light entering the eye
Using a laser to permanently reshape the curvature of the cornea so that the focal length
of the eye is changed
The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence for a ray at a surface
Further converges light (which have been refracted by the cornea) to focus them on the
retina
An equation that relates image distance v, object distance u and the focal length f: 1/u +
1/v = 1/f
Eyesight problem when a person can see distant objects but cannot focus properly on
near objects. Caused by light rays being focused to a point behind the retina. Can be
corrected using converging lenses or laser surgery
The closest distance the eye can focus an object usually about 25cm
Thin and flexible tubes of transparent material for transmitting light from one end to
another
A quantity found using the equation 1/f where f = focal length in metres. It is measured
in dioptres (D)
The point at which rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens
converge, or the point from which rays parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens
appear to come
The central hole produced by the iris
Any form of energy that originates from a source, including waves and particles
Real image
Refract
Refractive index
Retina
Short sight
Snell’s law
Total internal
reflection
Ultrasound
Virtual image
An image that can be projected onto a screen
The change of direction of a wave due to the change in speed at an interface between 2
media
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a particular material
Light sensitive part of the eye on which images are formed
Eyesight problem when a person can see near objects but cannot focus properly on
distant objects. Caused by light rays being focused to a point in front of the retina. Can
be corrected using diverging lenses or laser surgery
An equation that relates the angle of incidence i in a vacuum (or air), the angle of
refraction r in a medium and the refractive index n of the medium; sin i / sin r = n
Reflection of light in a denser medium when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle
High-frequency sound waves (above 20 000Hz) that humans cannot hear
An image that cannot be projected onto a screen
Topic 2
Action potential
Anode
CAT scan
Cathode
Diagnosis
ECG
Electron gun
Evacuated tube
Filament
Fluoroscope
Frequency
Intensity
Inverse square law
Ionising radiation
Pacemaker
Potential difference
Pulse oximetry
Thermionic emission
X-Ray
Change in voltage across a neurone or the membrane of a cardiac muscle cell when an
electrical impulse travels along it.
Positive electrode.
Computerised Tomography. An x-ray picture that shows a slice through the body.
Negative electrode.
Identifying a medical condition by its signs and symptoms or from a medical imaging
scan.
Electrocardiogram. A graph showing the change in potential difference produced by the
heart, used to monitor heart action.
A heated cathode that emits electrons, and the apparatus that focuses the beam of
electrons.
A tube from which the air has been removed so that there is a vacuum.
A thin wire. In thermionic emission a heated filament emits electrons and forms the
cathode when current is passed through an evacuated tube.
A device that uses X-rays and a fluorescent screen to obtain moving pictures of the inside
of the body.
The number of cycles of a wave per second (or complete heart beats in this topic),
measured in hertz (Hz)
The strength of a wave (X-rays in this topic) defined as power/area.
Any law of physics in which the value of a physical quantity is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the source of that physical quantity. Applies to the
strength of X-ray radiation in this topic.
Radiation that can cause charged particles to be formed by knocking outer electrons out
of the atom, or giving them enough energy to break free from the atom. Causes tissue
damage and may cause mutations.
A device which helps the heart to beat properly by detecting the action potentials and
applying electrical signals to regulate the heart action.
Another word for voltage. It is the difference in the energy carried by electrons before
and after they have flowed through a component.
Using a pulse oximeter to measure the pulse rate and amount of oxygen in the blood.
The process of emitting an electron fro the surface of a heated metal, usually a hot
filament.
Electromagnetic wave with a high frequency and high energy. X-rays are ionising
radiation.
Topic 3
Alpha particle
Annihilation
Antimatter
Beta minus decay
Beta plus decay
Cyclotron
Down quark
Electron
Fundamental particle
Gamma camera
Gamma radiation
Half-life
Ionising radiation
Isotopes
Neutrino
Neutron
Nuclear equation
Nucleons
Palliative care
Particle accelerator
PET scanner
Positron
Proton
Quark
Stability curve
Strong nuclear force
Up quark
Particle made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, emitted as ionising radiation from some
radioactive sources.
Destruction caused by interaction of a particle with its anti-particle.
Matter made up of anti-particles, such as positrons.
Emission of a high energy electron from an unstable nucleus when a down quark
becomes an up quark.
Emission of a positron from an unstable nucleus when an up quark becomes a down
quark.
A particle accelerator used to produce radioactive isotopes used in PET scanners.
A fundamental particle with a charge of -1/3.
A negatively charged particle found in atoms.
A particle that cannot be broken down into smaller units. At present quarks, electrons
and positrons are all thought to be examples of fundamental particles.
A special camera used to produce a 3 dimensional image of the body using gamma rays
emitted from inside the body.
Ionising radiation in the form of pulses of electromagnetic radiation with very short
wavelengths.
The time taken for half of a radioactive element to decay to its non- radioactive product.
Radiation that can cause charged particles to be formed by knocking outer electrons out
of the atom, making the atom into an ion. Causes tissue damage and may cause
mutations.
Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
A particle with no charge and a very small mass emitted during beta-plus decay of
unstable nuclei.
(PTO)
Small particle which does not have a charge, found in the nucleus of an atom. It is made
up from 1 up quark and 2 down quarks.
Equation representing a nuclear reaction, i.e. a change in the nucleus due to radioactive
decay, balancing the atomic number and mass number.
Protons and neutrons (both found in the nucleus of an atom)
A medical intervention that does not cure a condition but may reduce pain or other
symptoms and may extend life expectancy.
A machine used to accelerate charged particles to very high speeds.
A special scanner used to produce images of the metabolic functions of the body.
The anti-particle of an electron; a particle with a similar mass to an electron but with an
opposite charge (it has a positive charge).
Small positive particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It is made up from 2 up quarks
and 1 down quark.
A fundamental particle within particles such as protons and neutrons.
A curve on a N-Z (number of neutrons against number of protons) graph showing the
positions of all stable nuclei.
An attractive force between all neutrons and protons.
A fundamental particle with a charge of +2/3.
Topic 4
Annihilation
Centripetal force
Cyclotron
Elastic collision
Inelastic collision
Mass-Energy equation
Destruction caused by interaction of a particle with its anti-particle.
The resultant force acting at right angles to the velocity of an object that gives rise
to circular motion.
A particle accelerator used to produce radioactive isotopes used in PET scanners.
A collision in which momentum and energy are both conserved.
A collision in which momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not because
some of the energy is transformed into other forms such as thermal energy and
sound.
Einstein’s equation E=mc2 which links mass and energy.
Momentum
Particle accelerator
PET scanner
Positron
Radiopharmaceutical
A quantity calculated by multiplying the mass of an object by its velocity. It is a
vector quantity as it has both size and direction.
A machine used to accelerate charged particles to very high speeds.
A special scanner used to produce images of the metabolic functions of the body.
The anti-particle of an electron; a particle with a similar mass to an electron but
with an opposite charge (it has a positive charge).
A substance produced by tagging radioactive isotopes to natural chemicals such as
glucose and water.
Topic 5
Absolute zero
Atmosphere (atm)
Atmospheric pressure
Boyles law
Charles law
Gas equation
Heat
Ideal gas equation
Kelvin
Kelvin temperature scale
Kinetic energy
Kinetic theory
Pascals (Pa)
Pressure
Pressure law
Temperature
A temperature equivalent to -273.15◦C or 0K; all atoms or molecules stop moving
at this temperature
A unit of pressure
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere of the Earth; at sea level the atmospheric
pressure is 100kPa or 1 atm
The pressure exerted by a fixed mass of gas, kept at constant temperature, is
inversely proportional to its volume
The volume occupied by a fixed mass of gas, kept at a constant pressure, is directly
proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin scale
PV/T = constant
A measure of the thermal energy in an object. It is measured in joules (J)
PV=nRT describes the relationship between pressure, volume, temperature and
number of moles of gases
The standard unit of temperature
A temperature scale that measures temperatures relative to absolute zero
The energy that a particle has due to its movement. It can be calculated in joules (J)
using the equation
KE= ½mv2
The theory that explains the different states of matter in terms of the movement of
particles
A unit of pressure. 1Pa = 1N/m2
The force on a certain area. It is measured in the standard unit of Pascals (Pa)
The pressure exerted by a fixed mass of gas, kept at a constant volume, is directly
proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin scale
A measure of how hot an object is. It can be measured in ◦C for convenience or in
the standard unit of Kelvin (K)