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Biology 1. 2. Macromolecules are very large biomolecules formed by a process of polymerization. In polymerization many small molecule are connected together to make a large molecule. The small molecules are called monomers. Monomers may all be identical or different. They are connected like the beads in a necklace. There are four groups of macromolecules: 1. Carbohydrates – composed of sugar molecules. Used to store energy for cells. (Polysaccharides) 2. Lipids – composed of glycerin and fatty acids. Used to store energy for cells. 3. Nucleic acids – composed of a sugar, a nitrogen base, and a phosphate group. (C, H, O, N) Contains the genetic code. 4. Proteins – composed of amino acids. They are used as building materials and enzymes in a cell. Enzymes are catalysts used to speed up or slow down a chemical reaction. Biomolecules 4. 3. • • • • • • • • Enzyme action Nucleus – directs cell activities & contains DNA Mitochondria – site of respiration - produces power (ATP) powerhouse Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi/Complex – packages proteins for sending outside the cell Lysosome – digest or breakdown old cell parts Small Vacuole – storage place Cell membrane – controls what enters or leaves a cell (maintains homeostasis within the cell) Endoplasmic Reticulum – transportation system inside the cell. Animal Cell 5. 6. • • • • • • • • • • Nucleus – controls the cell Mitochondria – produces power (ATP) powerhouse Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi/Complex – packages proteins for sending outside the cell Lysosome – digest or breakdown old cell parts Large Vacuole – storage place Cell membrane – controls what enters or leaves a cell (maintains homeostasis within the cell) Endoplasmic Reticulum – transportation system inside the cell. Cell Wall – made of cellulose, support structure Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis Plant Cell • • • • • • • • No cell wall No chloroplasts Small Vacuole Centrioles Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell Plant Cell 7. 8. Eukaryotic Cell • • Single celled or multicellular • Well organized nucleus • Prokaryotic Cell • Single celled • No organized nucleus • No specialized organelles • Always very small in size All bacteria • Cell Wall Chloroplasts Large Vacuole No Centrioles Animal Cell • Organelles surrounded by membrane (carry out specialized functions) • Larger than prokaryotic cells • All cells except bacteria Prokaryotic Cell Vs. Eukaryotic Cell • • Passive transport: movement of materials that require no energy. o Examples: diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion Diffusion: movement of materials from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration. Osmosis: diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. Facilitated Diffusion: a carrier protein carries the material across the cell membrane. No energy is required from the cell. Passive Transport 9. 10. Active transport – movement of materials from a region of low concentration to a region of higher concentration. This requires energy from the cell. • To maintain internal conditions and keeps them constant. • The skin helps maintain homeostasis in animals (including humans). It also helps keep moisture and heat inside the body. Endocytosis - process of moving materials into the cell by enfolding of the cell membrane. Phagocytosis – large solid particles (whole cells) Pinocytosis – small liquid droplets Exocytosis – process of moving materials out of the cell by a small vacuole joining with the cell membrane and dumping its contents outside the cell. • Many times something has to change to maintain homeostasis. After running a distance your breathing and heart rate both speed up to get the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide back in balance. Active transport Homeostasis 11. Type of Solution 12. Animal cell Plant cell Hypotonic Solution -Contains a greater concentration of water outside the cell. This causes cells to burst because water moves into the cells. Cell swells and ruptures Cell Swells and increases turgor pressure. Cell wall keeps cell from bursting. Isotonic Solution -- Contains the same concentration of water as the inside of a cell. There is no effect on cells because water moves in and out in equal amounts. Hypertonic Solution -Contains a lower concentration of water than the inside of a cell. This causes the cell to shrink as water moves out of the cell No change in cell No change in cell Cells shrink Large vacuole collapses and cell under goes plasmolysis Cell Solutions • • • • • • • Double Helix Subunits consists of three parts: phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar, and nitrogen base (nucleotide) Sugar is Deoxyribose 4 nitrogen bases: o Adenine A – T Thymine o Cytosine C – G Guanine Contains the genetic information Found in the nucleus Makes up chromosomes DNA Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid 13. 14. • Occurs in the nucleus • DNA makes an exact copy of itself • Occurs just before mitosis starts • Is passed on to the new cell DNA Strand DNA unzips Nucleotides fill in both sides • • • • Two new strands • • Replication Single strand Subunits consists of three parts: phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar, nitrogen base (nucleotide) Sugar is ribose 4 nitrogen bases: o Adenine A—U Uracil o Cytosine C—G Guanine 3 types of RNA o mRNA - carries information from nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm (messenger RNA) o tRNA – transfers amino acids to the mRNA (transfer RNA) o rRNA – ribosomal RNA (site of protein synthesis) Thymine (T) is not in RNA. It is replaced by Uracil (U). RNA Ribonucleic Acid 16. 15. • • • DNA makes m-RNA Occurs in the nucleus DNA Strand DNA unzips Nucleotides fill in only one side One DNA and One RNA • • • • • Occurs at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm or on the Endoplasmic reticulum Process of making new proteins Proteins are made of amino acids bonded together to make a chain It requires three base pairs (codon) in m-RNA to code for one amino acid in the protein chain t-RNA contains the anticodons which are the complementary bases of the codon Each t-RNA carries a particular amino acid Instructions to make proteins are coded into the DNA nucleotides that make up a gene. These instructions are transferred to mRNA during transcription. Transcription Translation 17. 18. • • • UCGCACGGU (groups of 3) UCG-CAC-GGU would code for Change in the DNA of Chromosome Most are harmful but some are helpful Causes of mutations: o some are random errors or spontaneous changes o environment : X –ray, UV light, radioactive materials, cigarette smoke, pollutants • If it occurs in somatic (body) cell, the mutation cannot be passed on to future generations. • If it occurs in a gamete (egg or sperm), it will be passed on • Types of mutations: Chromosomal mutations Ex. Deletion, Inversion, Duplication, Translocation Point mutations Ex. Deletion, Substitution, and Addition UCG --- serine CAC --- histidine GGU --- glycine Condon Chart 19. Mutation 20. • • • • • • • • • Alleles – more than one form of the same gene Gene – genetic information found on the chromosomes that determines traits. Ex. Hair color, eye color, height, etc. Homozygous – the two alleles in an individual for a trait are the same Heterozygous – the two alleles in an individual for a trait are different Genotype – the alleles present in an organism Phenotype – the physical appearance Dominant – a gene that can cover the effect of another gene Recessive – a gene who’s effect can be covered by another gene Independent assortment of alleles – the two alleles separate independently during the formation of gametes (eggs & sperm) Genetic terms Mitosis Meiosis • Occurs in body cells • End up with the same number of chromosomes you started with. • Occurs in sex cells • End up with half the number of chromosomes you started with. Mitosis vs Meiosis 21. 22. Chromosomal Mutations • Although rare, changes in an organisms DNA to occur • Most changes are lethal to the organism • There are four types of chromosomal mutations Deletion – a whole section of the chromosome is absent. Inversion – a piece of chromosome is backward. Duplication – a piece of chromosome is repeated. Translocation – a piece of chromosome has been added from a non-homologous chromosome. Point mutations Deletion one base pair was left out This changes the rest of the This will only change one amino amino acid acid in the sequence sequence to the end of the protein. Addition one extra base pair was added in This changes the rest of the amino acid sequence to the end of the protein. Types of DNA mutations Chromosomal Mutations 23. Substitution one base pair was replaced by another pair 24. Used to predict and compare all possible genetic variations that can occur in the genotype and phenotype of offspring. TT homozygous dominant x tt homozygous recessive Tt heterozygous dominant x Tt heterozygous dominant Punnett Square Incomplete Dominance • Mixing of the two traits • The traits blend • Example: • White flower crossed with red flower produce a pink flower • • • Codominance Both alleles are expressed equally Example: White chicken crossed with a black chicken produce a gray chicken Incomplete dominance vs codominance 25. 26. • Polygenetic traits • More than one pair of genes control a trait • Characterized by a graduation from one extreme to another • Usually on the same chromosome so they are inherited together. (linked) • Example: eye color, hair color, skin color, height, or blood types (A, B, and O) Normal Female • • • • • • Humans have 46 chromosomes that are in 23 pairs. The first 22 pairs are called autosomal chromosomes. (autosomes) The last pair is the sex chromosomes. XX female XY male Individuals get one of each pair from each parent. Human eggs contain 23 chromosomes and are said to be haploid. Human sperms contain 23 chromosomes and are also haploid. Multiple Alleles 27. Karyotype 28. Pedigree Pedigree • • All living things have to change over time. The conditions on earth change and living things have to change or they will become extinct. Evolution states: • Variation exist within every population of organisms • Under particular conditions some organism are better suited to survive • Over time the good genes in a population will increase in frequency • There is evidence that living things evolved from species that are no longer alive. • Evidence: o Fossils – older fossils are found in deeper older rock layers o DNA sequences – DNA is constantly changing, organism that are closely related with have fewer differences in their DNA. • Homologous structures – Penguins, alligators, bats, and men all have similar bone structure in their limbs. They look similar but have different functions. • Physiological similarities – very different organisms have similar complex molecules that perform similar function. o Embryology – very different organisms look very similar when developing as embryos. (Evolution) 29. 30. Autotrophs – produce their own food using energy from the sun by photosynthesis. (Plants) Heterotrophs – consumers that eat autotrophs or other heterotrophs. (Animals) Herbivores – eat plants Carnivores – eat consumers (meat) Omnivores – eat meat and plants • Darwin stated that organisms change over time by natural selection. • Natural selection – organisms that are better adapted to their environment can produce more offspring • He called this survival of the fittest • Adaptation – any inherited characteristic that increases an organisms chance to survive. o Example: Thicker fur for animals that live in cold environments Decomposers – bacteria that cause decay of dead organisms Natural Selection Energy and Living Things 32. 31. • • • • • • • • • Prokaryotic cell Few cell parts No organized nucleus Cell wall is made up of polysaccharides + protein and stains gram positive or gram negative. Bacteria can be helpful in the large intestine to produce vitamin B and K. Bacteria also help some animals digest their food. Bacteria produce toxins that are poisonous waste products. There are 3 shapes of bacteria. 1. Coccus – round 2. Bacillus – Rod 3. Spirilus – Spiral Diseases caused by bacteria: Strep-throat, Tooth Decay, Diphtheria, Dysentery, Lyme Disease, Tuberculosis (Bacteria) • Not a living organism. • Is not made up of cells. • Made up of DNA or RNA contained within a protein coat (cover). • Must be inside a host cell to reproduce. • Diseases caused by viruses: AIDS, Common Cold, Influenza, Warts, Smallpox, Measles, Polio, Herpes, Rabies, West Nile, Mumps, Ebola Virus 33. 34. Living organisms are group into seven categories by similar characteristics. • • • • • • Virus Antibiotics have no effect Vaccinations are most effective in stopping spread Mutations often make vaccines ineffective Prevent spread by washing hands often Boiling can make virus inactive Must be inside cell to reproduce • • • • • Bacteria Antibiotics are most effective in stopping bacteria growth Mutations can make antibiotics ineffective Prevent spread by washing hands often Boiling can kill most bacteria Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Largest group General Smallest group Specific Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup. Bacteria need moisture to grow. So dry foods can be stored for long periods of time without spoiling Classification Infection Prevention 36. 35. • • • • • • Eubacteria – prokaryotes that live almost everywhere on earth. Archaebacteria - prokaryotes that live in extreme environments (hot springs, bottom of the ocean, etc.) Protista – most are single celled, all are eukaryotes. Examples: Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, diatoms and slime molds Fungi – multicellular, eukaryotes, heterotrophs, cell walls made of chitin Plantae – multicellular, eukaryotes, autotrophs, cell walls made of cellulose Animalia – multicellular, eukaryotes, heterotrophs, no cell wall Bacteria Fungi Plantae Protista Animalia • Scientist use binomial nomenclature to name organisms. o The first name is the genus name. o The second name is the species name. • Organisms that share the most category names in common are more closely related. Human Gorilla Wolf Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Order Primate Primate Carnivora Family Hominidae Hominidae Canidae Genus Homo Gorilla Canis Species sapiens gorilla lupus Note the Human and Gorilla share classification groups down to the Family level. This means they are closely related. The Human and the Wolf share classification groups down to the Class level this means they are less closely related. Note scientific names using binomial nomenclature is made of genus and species names. Human ----- Homo sapiens Gorilla ------ Gorilla gorilla Wolf --------- Canis lupus Binomial nomenclature Six Kingdoms 37. 38. Living organisms are organized in the following way, from a cell to the organism. • • • • • Individual cells Tissue – same kind of cells Organs – many kinds of tissues working together Organ systems – groups of organs working together Organism – all the systems working together Organism (human) Organ Systems (skeleton) Plants are divided into: Bryophytes – do not contain vascular tissue and must grow in wet environments so that they do not dry out. Also they must stay very small. Examples: liverworts and mosses Seed plants – contain vascular tissue (xylem & Phloem). This tissue allows them to get very large. Seed plants are divided into: Organs (whole bone) 1. Gymnosperms – cone bearing trees (conifers) 2. Angiosperms – flowering plants (monocots & dicots) Tissue (compact bone) Cells (bone cell) Levels of Organization Non Vascular Vascular Plant Classification 40. 39. Plants lose water through their leaves by a process of transpiration. As the water is lost in the leaves water is pulled up the stem through the xylem tissue from the roots. Water and food can move back down to the roots through the phloem tissue. These tissues allow seed plants to get very tall. Plant parts Photosynthesis & Respiration 41. 42. • Plants are producers and all living things on earth depend on them for food and oxygen. Plants are adapted to live in many environments. Examples: o Small waxy leaves in the desert to conserve water o Large broad leaves in the tropical rainforest to help gather sunlight o loss of leaves during the winter months to prevent freezing o Seeds with spurs, seeds in fruit, and seeds with silk strands are all used to help scatter them. o Some plants are poisonous o Flowers to help fertilize the gametes. • • ATP → ADP + Energy ADP + Energy → ATP Plants ATP & ADP 44. 43. System parts Integumentary System skin, hair, nails Skeletal System bones and cartilage Muscular System smooth muscle, cardiac muscle skeletal muscle Circulatory System blood, blood vessels (veins, capillaries, arteries), and the heart Body Systems function protection from bacteria, drying out, and maintaining homeostasis. maintains body shape, helps in movement, and produce red blood cells movement, move food through the digestive system, move blood through the circulatory system deliver food and oxygen to all the cells and remove waste form all cells System parts function Respiratory System mouth, nose, pharynx, trachea, lungs, alveoli remove CO2, and absorb O2 for the body. Digestive System Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus Break down food then absorb nutrients Excretory System or Urinary System kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra purify the blood by removing nitrogen waste Nervous System Brain, spinal cord, nerves, receive messages from all parts of the body and then transmit messages back Immune System white blood cells destroy any pathogens that enter the body Body Systems 45. 46. System Endocrine System Reproductive System parts glands of the body (adrenal, ovaries, testes, pancreas, pineal, thymus, thyroid, pituitary Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, penis function Regulate all body functions • The size of the population that can be maintained over a long period of time in an ecosystem. • Limited by resources such as food and water. Reproduction of new individuals All these systems work together and work on a system of biofeedback. They maintain homeostasis within the body and make live possible. Body Systems Carrying Capacity 48. 47. • • Biosphere – the area of the earth where life can exist. • Biomes – an environment that has a characteristic climate (temperature, rainfall, sunshine, prevailing wind) and a climax community. Ecosystem – an ecological system with a community of organisms. • • Community – a group of populations of organisms that occupy a common region. • Population – a group of one kind of organism that occupies a region. Organization of life • • • • • Energy moves through an ecosystem in only one direction and then is lost. Materials are recycled through the ecosystem. (oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, water, and etc.) Food chain – shows one possible pathway for energy and materials through an ecosystem. Food web – shows many pathways for energy and materials through an ecosystem. Trophic level – is represented by each organism in a food chain represents. 10% rule – only 10% of the available energy in one trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level. Transfer of materials and energy in an ecosystem 49. 50. • • Symbiosis – a relationship between two living organisms in which at least one of the organisms benefits from the relationship. • • • • • • • • Predation – one organism eats the another Parasitism – one organism the host is damaged and the other organism (the parasite) is benefited Mutualism – both organisms benefit from the relationship Commensalism – one organism is benefited but the other is not harmed Competition – when two organism try to use the same resources Limiting factor – since organism try to use the same resources there is not enough for all of them to survive Niche – all the activities and conditions in which an organism lives Habitat – The place where an organism usually lives. Flow of energy through an ecosystem Only 10% of the energy moves up to the next energy level. Energy Pyramid Symbiosis 51. 52. Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle