Download Macromolecules are very large biomolecules formed by a process of

Biology
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Macromolecules are very large biomolecules formed by a process of
polymerization.
In polymerization many small molecule are connected together to
make a large molecule.
The small molecules are called monomers.
Monomers may all be identical or different.
They are connected like the beads in a necklace.
There are four groups of macromolecules:
1. Carbohydrates – composed of sugar molecules.
Used to store energy for cells. (Polysaccharides)
2. Lipids – composed of glycerin and fatty acids.
Used to store energy for cells.
3. Nucleic acids – composed of a sugar, a nitrogen base, and a
phosphate group. (C, H, O, N) Contains the genetic code.
4. Proteins – composed of amino acids. They are used as
building materials and enzymes in a cell. Enzymes are
catalysts used to speed up or slow down a chemical reaction.
Biomolecules
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Enzyme action
Nucleus – directs cell activities & contains DNA
Mitochondria – site of respiration - produces power (ATP) powerhouse
Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis
Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi/Complex – packages proteins for
sending outside the cell
Lysosome – digest or breakdown old cell parts
Small Vacuole – storage place
Cell membrane – controls what enters or leaves a cell
(maintains homeostasis within the cell)
Endoplasmic Reticulum – transportation system inside the
cell.
Animal Cell
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Nucleus – controls the cell
Mitochondria – produces power (ATP) powerhouse
Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis
Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi/Complex – packages proteins for
sending outside the cell
Lysosome – digest or breakdown old cell parts
Large Vacuole – storage place
Cell membrane – controls what enters or leaves a cell
(maintains homeostasis within the cell)
Endoplasmic Reticulum – transportation system inside the
cell.
Cell Wall – made of cellulose, support structure
Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis
Plant Cell
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No cell wall
No chloroplasts
Small Vacuole
Centrioles
Plant Cell
vs.
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
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Eukaryotic Cell
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• Single celled or
multicellular
• Well organized nucleus
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Prokaryotic Cell
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Single celled
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No organized nucleus
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No specialized
organelles
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Always very small in
size
All bacteria
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Cell Wall
Chloroplasts
Large Vacuole
No Centrioles
Animal Cell
• Organelles surrounded
by membrane (carry out
specialized functions)
• Larger than prokaryotic
cells
• All cells except bacteria
Prokaryotic Cell
Vs.
Eukaryotic Cell
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Passive transport: movement of materials that
require no energy.
o Examples: diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion
Diffusion: movement of materials from a region of
high concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
Osmosis: diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion: a carrier protein carries the
material across the cell membrane. No energy is
required from the cell.
Passive Transport
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Active transport – movement of materials from a region
of low concentration to a region of higher concentration.
This requires energy from the cell.
• To maintain internal conditions and keeps them
constant.
• The skin helps maintain homeostasis in animals
(including humans). It also helps keep moisture and
heat inside the body.
Endocytosis - process of moving materials into the
cell by enfolding of the cell membrane.
Phagocytosis – large solid particles (whole
cells)
Pinocytosis – small liquid droplets
Exocytosis – process of moving materials out of the
cell by a small vacuole joining with the cell
membrane and dumping its contents outside the cell.
• Many times something has to change to maintain
homeostasis. After running a distance your
breathing and heart rate both speed up to get the
amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide back in
balance.
Active transport
Homeostasis
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Type of Solution
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Animal cell
Plant cell
Hypotonic Solution -Contains a greater
concentration of water
outside the cell. This causes
cells to burst because water
moves into the cells.
Cell swells and
ruptures
Cell Swells and
increases turgor
pressure. Cell wall
keeps cell from
bursting.
Isotonic Solution -- Contains
the same concentration of
water as the inside of a cell.
There is no effect on cells
because water moves in and
out in equal amounts.
Hypertonic Solution -Contains a lower
concentration of water than
the inside of a cell. This
causes the cell to shrink as
water moves out of the cell
No change in cell
No change in cell
Cells shrink
Large vacuole
collapses and cell
under goes
plasmolysis
Cell Solutions
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Double Helix
Subunits consists of three parts: phosphate group, 5 carbon
sugar, and nitrogen base (nucleotide)
Sugar is Deoxyribose
4 nitrogen bases:
o Adenine A – T Thymine
o Cytosine C – G Guanine
Contains the genetic information
Found in the nucleus
Makes up chromosomes
DNA
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
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• Occurs in the nucleus
• DNA makes an exact copy of itself
• Occurs just before mitosis starts
• Is passed on to the new cell
DNA Strand
DNA unzips
Nucleotides
fill in both
sides
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Two new
strands
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Replication
Single strand
Subunits consists of three parts: phosphate group, 5 carbon
sugar, nitrogen base (nucleotide)
Sugar is ribose
4 nitrogen bases:
o Adenine A—U Uracil
o Cytosine C—G Guanine
3 types of RNA
o mRNA - carries information from nucleus to
ribosomes in cytoplasm
(messenger RNA)
o tRNA – transfers amino acids
to the mRNA (transfer RNA)
o rRNA – ribosomal RNA (site
of protein synthesis)
Thymine (T) is not in RNA. It is
replaced by
Uracil (U).
RNA
Ribonucleic Acid
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DNA makes m-RNA
Occurs in the nucleus
DNA Strand
DNA unzips
Nucleotides
fill in only
one side
One DNA
and
One RNA
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Occurs at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm or on the
Endoplasmic reticulum
Process of making new proteins
Proteins are made of amino acids bonded together to
make a chain
It requires three base pairs (codon) in m-RNA to code for
one amino acid in the protein chain
t-RNA contains the anticodons which are the
complementary bases of the codon
Each t-RNA carries a particular amino acid
Instructions to make proteins are coded into the DNA nucleotides
that make up a gene. These instructions are transferred to mRNA
during transcription.
Transcription
Translation
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UCGCACGGU (groups of 3) UCG-CAC-GGU would code for
Change in the DNA of Chromosome
Most are harmful but some are helpful
Causes of mutations:
o some are random errors or spontaneous changes
o environment : X –ray, UV light, radioactive materials,
cigarette smoke, pollutants
• If it occurs in somatic (body) cell, the mutation cannot be passed
on to future generations.
• If it occurs in a gamete (egg or sperm), it will be passed on
• Types of mutations:
Chromosomal mutations
Ex. Deletion, Inversion, Duplication, Translocation
Point mutations
Ex. Deletion, Substitution, and Addition
UCG --- serine
CAC --- histidine
GGU --- glycine
Condon Chart
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Mutation
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Alleles – more than one form of the same gene
Gene – genetic information found on the chromosomes that
determines traits. Ex. Hair color, eye color, height, etc.
Homozygous – the two alleles in an individual for a trait are
the same
Heterozygous – the two alleles in an individual for a trait are
different
Genotype – the alleles present in an organism
Phenotype – the physical appearance
Dominant – a gene that can cover the effect of another gene
Recessive – a gene who’s effect can be covered by another
gene
Independent assortment of alleles – the two alleles separate
independently during the formation of gametes (eggs &
sperm)
Genetic terms
Mitosis
Meiosis
• Occurs in body cells
• End up with the
same number of
chromosomes you
started with.
• Occurs in sex cells
• End up with half the
number of
chromosomes you
started with.
Mitosis vs Meiosis
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Chromosomal Mutations
• Although rare, changes in an organisms DNA to
occur
• Most changes are lethal to the organism
• There are four types of chromosomal mutations
Deletion – a whole section of the
chromosome is absent.
Inversion – a piece of chromosome is
backward.
Duplication – a piece of chromosome
is repeated.
Translocation – a piece of
chromosome has been added from a
non-homologous chromosome.
Point mutations
Deletion one base pair was left
out
This changes the rest of the
This will only change one amino
amino acid
acid in the sequence
sequence to the end of the
protein.
Addition one extra base pair was added in
This changes the rest of the
amino acid
sequence to the end of the
protein.
Types of DNA mutations
Chromosomal Mutations
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Substitution one base pair was
replaced by another pair
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Used to predict and compare all possible genetic variations
that can occur in the genotype and phenotype of offspring.
TT
homozygous dominant
x
tt
homozygous recessive
Tt
heterozygous dominant
x
Tt
heterozygous dominant
Punnett Square
Incomplete Dominance
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Mixing of the two traits
• The traits blend
• Example:
• White flower crossed
with red flower produce
a pink flower
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Codominance
Both alleles are
expressed equally
Example:
White chicken crossed
with a black chicken
produce a gray chicken
Incomplete dominance vs codominance
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• Polygenetic traits
• More than one pair of genes control a trait
• Characterized by a graduation from one extreme to
another
• Usually on the same chromosome so they are
inherited together. (linked)
• Example: eye color, hair color, skin color, height, or
blood types (A, B, and O)
Normal Female
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Humans have 46 chromosomes that are in 23 pairs.
The first 22 pairs are called autosomal chromosomes. (autosomes)
The last pair is the sex chromosomes. XX female XY male
Individuals get one of each pair from each parent.
Human eggs contain 23 chromosomes and are said to be haploid.
Human sperms contain 23 chromosomes and are also haploid.
Multiple Alleles
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Karyotype
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Pedigree
Pedigree
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All living things have to change over time.
The conditions on earth change and living things have to change or they
will become extinct.
Evolution states:
• Variation exist within every population of organisms
• Under particular conditions some organism are better suited to survive
• Over time the good genes in a population will increase in frequency
• There is evidence that living things evolved from species that are no
longer alive.
• Evidence:
o Fossils – older fossils are found in deeper older rock layers
o DNA sequences – DNA is constantly changing, organism that
are closely related with have fewer differences in their DNA.
• Homologous structures – Penguins, alligators, bats, and
men all have similar bone structure in their limbs. They
look similar but have different functions.
• Physiological similarities – very different organisms
have similar complex molecules that perform similar
function.
o Embryology – very different organisms look very similar when
developing as embryos.
(Evolution)
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Autotrophs – produce their own food using energy from
the sun by photosynthesis. (Plants)
Heterotrophs – consumers that eat autotrophs or other
heterotrophs. (Animals)
Herbivores – eat plants
Carnivores – eat consumers (meat)
Omnivores – eat meat and plants
• Darwin stated that organisms change over time by
natural selection.
• Natural selection – organisms that are better adapted to
their environment can produce more offspring
• He called this survival of the fittest
• Adaptation – any inherited characteristic that increases
an organisms chance to survive.
o Example: Thicker fur for animals that live in cold
environments
Decomposers – bacteria that cause decay of dead
organisms
Natural Selection
Energy and Living Things
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Prokaryotic cell
Few cell parts
No organized nucleus
Cell wall is made up of polysaccharides + protein and stains
gram positive or gram negative.
Bacteria can be helpful in the large intestine to produce
vitamin B and K.
Bacteria also help some animals digest their food.
Bacteria produce toxins that are poisonous waste products.
There are 3 shapes of bacteria.
1. Coccus – round
2. Bacillus – Rod
3. Spirilus – Spiral
Diseases caused by
bacteria: Strep-throat, Tooth Decay, Diphtheria, Dysentery,
Lyme Disease, Tuberculosis
(Bacteria)
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Not a living organism.
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Is not made up of cells.
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Made up of DNA or RNA
contained within a protein coat (cover).
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Must be inside a host cell to reproduce.
• Diseases caused by viruses:
AIDS, Common Cold, Influenza, Warts, Smallpox, Measles,
Polio, Herpes, Rabies, West Nile, Mumps, Ebola
Virus
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Living organisms are group into seven categories by similar characteristics.
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Virus
Antibiotics have no effect
Vaccinations are most
effective in stopping spread
Mutations often make
vaccines ineffective
Prevent spread by washing
hands often
Boiling can make virus
inactive
Must be inside cell to
reproduce
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Bacteria
Antibiotics are most
effective in stopping
bacteria growth
Mutations can make
antibiotics ineffective
Prevent spread by washing
hands often
Boiling can kill most
bacteria
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Largest group
General
Smallest group
Specific
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
King
Phillip Came Over For
Good Soup.
Bacteria need moisture to
grow. So dry foods can be
stored for long periods of time
without spoiling
Classification
Infection Prevention
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Eubacteria – prokaryotes that live almost everywhere on earth.
Archaebacteria - prokaryotes that live in extreme environments (hot springs,
bottom of the ocean, etc.)
Protista – most are single celled, all are eukaryotes. Examples: Amoeba,
Euglena, Paramecium, diatoms and slime molds
Fungi – multicellular, eukaryotes, heterotrophs, cell walls made of chitin
Plantae – multicellular, eukaryotes, autotrophs, cell walls made of cellulose
Animalia – multicellular, eukaryotes, heterotrophs, no cell wall
Bacteria
Fungi
Plantae
Protista
Animalia
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Scientist use binomial nomenclature to name organisms.
o The first name is the genus name.
o The second name is the species name.
• Organisms that share the most category names in common are more closely
related.
Human
Gorilla
Wolf
Kingdom
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Chordata
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Mammalia
Mammalia
Order
Primate
Primate
Carnivora
Family
Hominidae
Hominidae
Canidae
Genus
Homo
Gorilla
Canis
Species
sapiens
gorilla
lupus
Note the Human and Gorilla share classification groups down to the Family level.
This means they are closely related. The Human and the Wolf share classification
groups down to the Class level this means they are less closely related.
Note scientific names using binomial nomenclature is made of genus and species
names.
Human ----- Homo sapiens
Gorilla ------ Gorilla gorilla
Wolf --------- Canis lupus
Binomial nomenclature
Six Kingdoms
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Living organisms are organized in the following way, from a cell to
the organism.
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Individual cells
Tissue – same kind of cells
Organs – many kinds of tissues
working together
Organ systems – groups of organs
working together
Organism – all the systems working
together
Organism
(human)
Organ Systems
(skeleton)
Plants are divided into:
Bryophytes – do not contain vascular
tissue and must grow in wet
environments so that they do not dry
out. Also they must stay very small.
Examples: liverworts and mosses
Seed plants – contain
vascular tissue (xylem &
Phloem). This tissue
allows them to get very
large.
Seed plants are divided into:
Organs
(whole bone)
1. Gymnosperms – cone bearing
trees (conifers)
2. Angiosperms – flowering plants
(monocots & dicots)
Tissue
(compact bone)
Cells
(bone cell)
Levels of Organization
Non Vascular
Vascular
Plant Classification
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Plants lose water through their leaves by a process of transpiration.
As the water is lost in the leaves water is pulled up the stem through the xylem
tissue from the roots.
Water and food can move back down to the roots through the phloem tissue.
These tissues allow seed plants to get very tall.
Plant parts
Photosynthesis & Respiration
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Plants are producers and all living things on earth depend on
them for food and oxygen.
Plants are adapted to live in many environments.
Examples:
o Small waxy leaves in the desert to conserve water
o Large broad leaves in the tropical rainforest to help gather
sunlight
o loss of leaves during the winter months to prevent freezing
o Seeds with spurs, seeds in fruit, and seeds with silk strands
are all used to help scatter them.
o Some plants are poisonous
o Flowers to help fertilize the gametes.
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ATP → ADP + Energy
ADP + Energy → ATP
Plants
ATP & ADP
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System
parts
Integumentary System
skin, hair, nails
Skeletal System
bones and cartilage
Muscular System
smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle
skeletal muscle
Circulatory System
blood, blood vessels
(veins, capillaries,
arteries), and the heart
Body Systems
function
protection from
bacteria, drying out,
and maintaining
homeostasis.
maintains body shape,
helps in movement,
and produce red blood
cells
movement, move food
through the digestive
system, move blood
through the circulatory
system
deliver food and
oxygen to all the cells
and remove waste form
all cells
System
parts
function
Respiratory System
mouth, nose, pharynx,
trachea, lungs, alveoli
remove CO2, and absorb
O2 for the body.
Digestive System
Mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, anus
Break down food then
absorb nutrients
Excretory System
or
Urinary System
kidneys, ureters,
bladder, urethra
purify the blood by
removing nitrogen waste
Nervous System
Brain, spinal cord,
nerves,
receive messages from
all parts of the body and
then transmit messages
back
Immune System
white blood cells
destroy any pathogens
that enter the body
Body Systems
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System
Endocrine System
Reproductive
System
parts
glands of the body
(adrenal, ovaries,
testes, pancreas,
pineal, thymus,
thyroid, pituitary
Ovaries, fallopian
tubes, uterus,
vagina, testes,
epididymis, vas
deferens, urethra,
penis
function
Regulate all body
functions
• The size of the population that can be maintained
over a long period of time in an ecosystem.
• Limited by resources such as food and water.
Reproduction of
new individuals
All these systems work together and work on a system of
biofeedback.
They maintain homeostasis within the body and make live possible.
Body Systems
Carrying Capacity
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Biosphere – the area of the earth
where life can exist.
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Biomes – an environment that has a
characteristic climate (temperature,
rainfall, sunshine, prevailing wind)
and a climax community.
Ecosystem – an ecological system
with a community of organisms.
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Community – a group of
populations of organisms that
occupy a common region.
• Population – a group of one kind of
organism that occupies a region.
Organization of life
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Energy moves through an ecosystem in only one direction and then is
lost.
Materials are recycled through the ecosystem. (oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, water, and etc.)
Food chain – shows one possible pathway for energy and materials
through an ecosystem.
Food web – shows many pathways for energy and materials through an
ecosystem.
Trophic level – is represented by each organism in a food chain
represents.
10% rule – only 10% of the available energy in one trophic level is
transferred to the next trophic level.
Transfer of materials and energy in an ecosystem
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Symbiosis – a relationship between two living organisms
in which at least one of the organisms benefits from the
relationship.
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Predation – one organism eats the another
Parasitism – one organism the host is damaged and the other
organism (the parasite) is benefited
Mutualism – both organisms benefit from the relationship
Commensalism – one organism is benefited but the other is
not harmed
Competition – when two organism try to use the same
resources
Limiting factor – since organism try to use the same
resources there is not enough for all of them to survive
Niche – all the activities and conditions in which an organism
lives
Habitat – The place where an organism usually lives.
Flow of energy through an ecosystem
Only 10% of the energy moves up to the next energy level.
Energy Pyramid
Symbiosis
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Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle