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ENGLISH FUNDAMENTALS From Sentences to Paragraphs to Essays WORD CLOUD A BASIC SENTENCE (ALSO CALLED A PHRASE OR CLAUSE) KEY TERMS: UNDERSTANDING BASIC SENTENCES • I.C.= INDEPENDENT CLAUSE • D.C.= DEPENDENT CLAUSE • C.C.=COORDINATE CONJUNCTION • S.C.=SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION • C.A.=CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS INDEPENDENT CLAUSES • A simple phrase or clause (S+V+O) is also called an independent clause (I.C.) • S+V+O= I.C. • Example: Jose (S) rides (V) the bus (O). DEPENDENT CLAUSES • A dependent clause (S.C.+S+V+O) is connected to an independent clause • By itself, a dependent clause is a fragment or incomplete sentence • S.C.+S+V+O • Example: Since (S.C.) the library (S) was (V) open (O) COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS • There are 7 coordinate conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so • An easy acronym: FANBOYS: F (for), A (and), N (nor), B (but), O (or), Y (yet), and S (so) • Coordinate conjunctions combine 2 or more independent clauses SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS • Subordinate conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, which add detail about independent clauses • Some useful subordinate conjunctions: AFTER ALTHOUGH AS BECAUSE BEFORE EVENTHOUGH IF ONCE PROVIDED SINCE THOUGH UNLESS WHEREAS WHETHER WHILE CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS • Conjunctive adverbs extend sentences by drawing important conclusions • Some common conjunctive adverbs: THUS HENCE HOWEVER MOREOVER FURTHERMORE NEVERTHELESS THEREFORE SIMILARLY FINALLY SENTENCE TYPES SENTENCE TYPE EQUATION EXAMPLE SIMPLE SENTENCE I.C. James researched civil rights. COMPOUND SENTENCE I.C. + C.C. + I.C. James did award-winning research, so he received the Nobel Peace Prize. COMPLEX SENTENCE D.C. + I.C. or I.C. + D.C. Since James had a lot of help, he thanked his colleagues in his speech. COMPOUND-COMPLEX D.C. + I.C. + I.C. or I.C. + I.C. After James received the + D.C. award, he got a position at U.C.L.A., and he decided to write another book. SENTENCE TYPES CONTINUED SENTENCE TYPE EQUATION EXAMPLE CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS D.C. + I.C. + I.C.; CA, I.C. As much as he tried to rebuild his report with his colleagues, they always felt he thought he was above them; thus, he decided to retire. COMPLETE SENTENCES • A complete sentence consists of a subject and a verb and usually an object • Complete: Billy (S) studied (V). • Complete: Billy (S) studied (V) literature (O). FRAGMENTS OR INCOMPLETE SENTENCES • An incomplete sentence either lacks a subject or verb, is a dependent clause, or begins with the wrong word • Avoid starting sentences with FANBOYS, which (only for questions), and especially (in most cases) RUN-ON SENTENCES • A run-on sentence is a series of phrases or clauses without conjunctions • If you have more than one clause, always use a conjunction • Example Run-on: George wrote late at night sometimes he made mistakes. PARALLEL STRUCTURE: CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS • Use correlative conjunctions with paired items, comparisons, series, or lists • Example: Not only is the essay due today, but also it cannot be made up. Correlative Conjunctions BOTH…AND NEITHER…NOR EITHER…OR NOT ONLY…BUT ALSO RATHER…THAN SENTENCE OPENINGS • Absolute Phrase • Prepositional Phrase • Gerund Phrase • Participial Phrase • Dependent Clause ABSOLUTE PHRASES • Absolute phrases typically consist of a noun or pronoun, a participle, and any related modifiers • Absolute phrases modify the whole sentence • Example: The season nearly finished, Kobe Bryant and Derek Fisher emerged as true leaders. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES • A prepositional phrase has a preposition, a noun or pronoun, and usually an adjective • Typically, prepositions indicate location, time, proximity, or distance • Example: On the other side of town GERUND PHRASES • A verbal ending in –ing that acts as a noun • These phrases function like nouns • Example: Writing essays the night before they’re due is not a good strategy. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES • Participial phrases also end in –ing, but they function as adjectives (not nouns, like gerund phrases) • Example: Working around the clock, the students finally finished their finals and research papers. DEPENDENT CLAUSES • A dependent clause consists of a subordinate conjunction, subject, verb, and usually an object • However, a dependent clause is not a complete sentence • A dependent clause begins with a subordinate conjunction • Example: Since college is challenging PARAGRAPHS • College essays have multiple paragraphs • An essay at this level should be about 4 to 6 paragraphs • There are 3 basic kinds of paragraphs: introduction, body, and conclusion PARAGRAPHS: INTRODUCTIONS • Introductions • I. Hook • Personal narrative, quote, statistic • II. Background Information • III. Thesis Statement (3-4 sentences) THESIS STATEMENTS • Concise Thesis Statements • 1 sentence arguing your position • Specific Thesis Statements • 3-4 sentences that argue your main position and explain your supporting points BODY PARAGRAPHS • I. Topic Sentence • 1-2 sentences arguing main idea • II. Introduce Evidence • Context of your supporting evidence • III. Present Evidence (quote in MLA format) • IV. Analyze Evidence (3-4 sentences) • V. Concluding Sentence • 1-2 sentences to conclude and transition CONCLUSIONS • Conclusions • Reflect on one of the main issues or concepts you touched upon in your essay ESSAYS • In this course, you will write 5 essays out of class • Each essay is 1-2 pages in length ESSAYS IN A NUTSHELL • 1. What kind of writer are you? What is your process? • 2. How do online classes compare to traditional education? • 3. Do you agree with Wallace’s rules of patriotism? • 4. What effect did Cesar Chavez have on John Hartmire and the labor movement? • 5. Re-write Essay 1 based on what you have learned in this course ESSAY 1 • What kind of writer are you? What is your writing process? Read “The Transaction” by William Zinsser. Organize your essay thematically around concepts presented in the Zinsser essay PRE-WRITING TECHNIQUES • 1. Freewriting • 2. Outlining • 3. Listing • 4. Answer the basic journalistic questions • 5. Brainstorming • 6. Clustering REVISION 101 • Does your essay have an interesting hook? • Do the coherence test. Do your thesis, topic sentences, and concluding sentences connect? • Do your topic sentences make arguments? • Do you use the burger metaphor for your body paragraphs? Do you have evidence and analysis? • Does your conclusion reflect on a related topic? ESSAY 1: PROCESS ESSAYS • Give precautions—what to be aware of, or avoid • Use transitions that clarify major steps: first, second, third, fourth, and fifth • Use transitions that indicate substeps: next, after that, while, meanwhile, during, then, later, when, as soon as, after one hour ESSAY 1: READINGS • “The Transaction” by William Zinsser • “How to Keep and Feed a Mouse” from Zen and the Art of Writing by Ray Bradbury • “Working Habits” from Ernest Hemingway on Writing • “The Philosophy of Composition” by Edgar Allan Poe ESSAY 2 • Compare and contrast online and traditional education. Read Marc Williams’ “The Online Alternative” (592594). You may also address the following questions in your essays: Thinking about the Reading 1, 2, 3, and 4. Writing Practice 2 and 3. BLOCK V POINT-BY-POINT • There are 2 methods by which you can organize compare and contrast essays • 1. Point-by-Point Method: each body paragraph examines a factor • 2. Block Method: paragraphs are divided into two paragraphs, one for each topic COMPARE AND CONTRAST: POINT-BY-POINT METHOD • Introduction • Body • Factor #1: Face-to-face interaction • Factor #2: Immediacy • Factor #3: Convenience • Factor #4: Presentation of information • Conclusion BLOCK METHOD • Introduction • Body • Online Classes • Traditional Classes • Conclusion TRANSITIONS TO INDICATE SIMILARITY • also • and • again • likewise • besides • too • both • similarly • in addition • then too TRANSITIONS TO INDICATE DISSIMILARITY • but • in contrast • however • still • conversely • yet • on the other hand • on the contrary • although • nevertheless ESSAY 2: READINGS • “The Online Alternative” by Marc Williams • Newspaper and online articles of your choice about online and traditional education • “50 Striking Statistics about Distance Learning in Higher Education” ESSAY 3 • Analyze and argue for or against 3 or 4 of Wallace’s “rules of patriotism.” Read “A ‘Good’ American Citizen” by Linda Wallace, which can be found in the 3rd edition of Foundations First or online at: http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0401/p11s02coop.html. Do you agree with her rules? Which rules do you disagree with? What rules would you suggest? The prompt is very similar to Thinking about the Reading question 3 MALCOLM X (PREACHER, AUTHOR, AND ACTIVIST) • “You’re not supposed to be so blind with patriotism that you can’t face reality. Wrong is wrong, no matter who says it”— Malcolm X EDWARD ABBEY (AMERICAN WRITER) • “A patriot must always be ready to defend his country against his government”— Edward Abbey MARK TWAIN (AMERICAN AUTHOR) • “Patriotism is supporting your country all the time, and your government when it deserves it”— Mark Twain CESAR CHAVEZ (ACTIVIST) • “In some cases non-violence requires more militancy than violence”—Cesar Chavez GEORGE BERNARD SHAW (ENGLISH PLAYWRIGHT) • “Patriotism is your conviction that this country is superior to all others because you were born in it”-George Bernard Shaw HOWARD ZINN (HISTORIAN AND AUTHOR) • “Dissent is the highest form of patriotism”— Howard Zinn ANGELA DAVIS (ACTIVIST, PROFESSOR, AND AUTHOR) • “The 13th amendment to the constitution of the U.S. which abolished slavery—did not abolish slavery for those convicted of a crime”—Angela Davis ESSAY 3: DEFINITION • “The beginning of wisdom is the definition of terms”—Socrates (470-399 BC) • Define the term using reliable sources • The classification (genus, class, or species) • The distinguishing features or characteristics • How can similar terms be ruled out? • What purpose or function does the term serve? ESSAY 3: READINGS • “A ‘Good’ American Citizen” by Linda Wallace • “I Have a Dream” by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. • “Ballot or the Bullet” by Malcolm X ESSAY 4 • How was John Hartmire Jr. affected by his father’s employment with Cesar Chavez? What was Chavez’s effect on California and the labor movement? Thinking about the Reading 1, 2, 3, and 4. Writing Practice 1 ESSAY 4: CAUSE AND EFFECT Steps in Causal Analysis: 1. Specify the effects. Separate from the presumed cause. 2. Examine the conditions that existed 3. Ask whether or not these conditions could have caused the effect(s) • 4. Think about possible explanations. What might have happened? • 5. Test your theories. Did the presumed causes actually produce the effect? • • • • CONSIDERING CAUSES • Immediate causes (those responsible for making the phenomenon or trend begin when it did) • Remote, background (those from before the phenomenon or trend began) • Perpetuating causes (those that may have contributed to sustaining or continuing the phenomenon or trend) • Obvious causes • Hidden causes SELECTING THE MOST PROMISING CAUSES • Review your list and select five or six causes that seem to you to provide a plausible explanation of your subject. Since you will next want to analyze these causes, it would be helpful to list them in table form—skipping five or six times between each cause ANALYZING PROMISING CAUSES • Is it a necessary cause? Without it, could the phenomenon or trend have occurred anyway? • Is it a sufficient cause? Could it alone have caused this phenomenon or trend? • Would this cause affect everybody the same way? • Would this cause always lead to phenomenon or trends like this one? • What particular anecdotes or examples might demonstrate the importance of the cause? • Do you know of any authorities who have suggested that it is an important cause? ESSAY 4: READINGS • “At the Heart of a Historic Movement” by John Hartmire • “1984 Address” by Cesar Chavez • Biography of Cesar Chavez ESSAY 5 • Re-Read “The Transaction” by William Zinsser. Consider your evolution as a writer this semester. Revise your first essay to focus on how your writing process has changed during this course. How have you used what you have learned in this course to become a better writer? TIPS FOR RESEARCH • Background info—dictionaries, encyclopedias • When you find a source, research it: who is the author? Are they affiliated with an institution? What are the author’s credentials? • Understand domain names: reliable ones—“.edu” or “.gov”, Johns Hopkins University, Project Muse, Salon.com, Slate.com • Use Full-text articles only! • Fool Proof: search Ebsco Host for journals, search subjectspecific databases (Political Science PAIS), visit http://sosig.esrc.bris.ac.uk/, http://thomas.loc.gov/ M.L.A. WORKS CITED OR BIBLIOGRAPHY • There are two parts to using and citing a source: in-text citation and works cited • In-text Citation • Zinsser remarks, “rewriting is the essence of writing” (Kirszner and Mandell 598). REFERENCES • Kirszner and Mandell. Foundations First. • The Bedford Handbook. • St. Martin’s Guide to Writing.