Download Sentences to Essays Lecture

ENGLISH FUNDAMENTALS
From Sentences to Paragraphs to Essays
WORD CLOUD
A BASIC SENTENCE (ALSO CALLED A PHRASE
OR CLAUSE)
KEY TERMS:
UNDERSTANDING BASIC SENTENCES
• I.C.= INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
• D.C.= DEPENDENT CLAUSE
• C.C.=COORDINATE CONJUNCTION
• S.C.=SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION
• C.A.=CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
• A simple phrase or clause (S+V+O) is
also called an independent clause
(I.C.)
• S+V+O= I.C.
• Example: Jose (S) rides (V) the bus
(O).
DEPENDENT CLAUSES
• A dependent clause (S.C.+S+V+O) is
connected to an independent clause
• By itself, a dependent clause is a
fragment or incomplete sentence
• S.C.+S+V+O
• Example: Since (S.C.) the library (S) was
(V) open (O)
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
• There are 7 coordinate conjunctions: for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, and so
• An easy acronym: FANBOYS: F (for), A
(and), N (nor), B (but), O (or), Y (yet), and
S (so)
• Coordinate conjunctions combine 2 or
more independent clauses
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
• Subordinate conjunctions introduce
dependent clauses, which add detail
about independent clauses
• Some useful subordinate conjunctions:
AFTER
ALTHOUGH
AS
BECAUSE
BEFORE
EVENTHOUGH
IF
ONCE
PROVIDED
SINCE
THOUGH
UNLESS
WHEREAS
WHETHER
WHILE
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
• Conjunctive adverbs extend sentences
by drawing important conclusions
• Some common conjunctive adverbs:
THUS
HENCE
HOWEVER
MOREOVER
FURTHERMORE
NEVERTHELESS
THEREFORE
SIMILARLY
FINALLY
SENTENCE TYPES
SENTENCE TYPE
EQUATION
EXAMPLE
SIMPLE SENTENCE
I.C.
James researched civil
rights.
COMPOUND SENTENCE
I.C. + C.C. + I.C.
James did award-winning
research, so he received the
Nobel Peace Prize.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
D.C. + I.C. or I.C. + D.C.
Since James had a lot of
help, he thanked his
colleagues in his speech.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX
D.C. + I.C. + I.C. or I.C. + I.C. After James received the
+ D.C.
award, he got a position at
U.C.L.A., and he decided to
write another book.
SENTENCE TYPES CONTINUED
SENTENCE TYPE
EQUATION
EXAMPLE
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
D.C. + I.C. + I.C.; CA, I.C.
As much as he tried to
rebuild his report with his
colleagues, they always felt
he thought he was above
them; thus, he decided to
retire.
COMPLETE SENTENCES
• A complete sentence consists of a
subject and a verb and usually an
object
• Complete: Billy (S) studied (V).
• Complete: Billy (S) studied (V)
literature (O).
FRAGMENTS OR INCOMPLETE SENTENCES
• An incomplete sentence either lacks a
subject or verb, is a dependent clause,
or begins with the wrong word
• Avoid starting sentences with
FANBOYS, which (only for questions),
and especially (in most cases)
RUN-ON SENTENCES
• A run-on sentence is a series of phrases
or clauses without conjunctions
• If you have more than one clause, always
use a conjunction
• Example Run-on: George wrote late at
night sometimes he made mistakes.
PARALLEL STRUCTURE:
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
• Use correlative conjunctions with
paired items, comparisons, series, or
lists
• Example: Not only is the essay due
today, but also it cannot be made up.
Correlative
Conjunctions
BOTH…AND
NEITHER…NOR
EITHER…OR
NOT ONLY…BUT
ALSO
RATHER…THAN
SENTENCE OPENINGS
• Absolute Phrase
• Prepositional Phrase
• Gerund Phrase
• Participial Phrase
• Dependent Clause
ABSOLUTE PHRASES
• Absolute phrases typically consist of a
noun or pronoun, a participle, and any
related modifiers
• Absolute phrases modify the whole
sentence
• Example: The season nearly finished,
Kobe Bryant and Derek Fisher emerged
as true leaders.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
• A prepositional phrase has a
preposition, a noun or pronoun, and
usually an adjective
• Typically, prepositions indicate
location, time, proximity, or distance
• Example: On the other side of town
GERUND PHRASES
• A verbal ending in –ing that acts as a
noun
• These phrases function like nouns
• Example: Writing essays the night
before they’re due is not a good
strategy.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
• Participial phrases also end in –ing,
but they function as adjectives (not
nouns, like gerund phrases)
• Example: Working around the clock,
the students finally finished their finals
and research papers.
DEPENDENT CLAUSES
• A dependent clause consists of a subordinate
conjunction, subject, verb, and usually an
object
• However, a dependent clause is not a
complete sentence
• A dependent clause begins with a subordinate
conjunction
• Example: Since college is challenging
PARAGRAPHS
• College essays have multiple
paragraphs
• An essay at this level should be about
4 to 6 paragraphs
• There are 3 basic kinds of paragraphs:
introduction, body, and conclusion
PARAGRAPHS: INTRODUCTIONS
• Introductions
• I. Hook
• Personal narrative, quote, statistic
• II. Background Information
• III. Thesis Statement (3-4 sentences)
THESIS STATEMENTS
• Concise Thesis Statements
• 1 sentence arguing your position
• Specific Thesis Statements
• 3-4 sentences that argue your main
position and explain your supporting
points
BODY PARAGRAPHS
• I. Topic Sentence
• 1-2 sentences arguing main idea
• II. Introduce Evidence
• Context of your supporting evidence
• III. Present Evidence (quote in MLA format)
• IV. Analyze Evidence (3-4 sentences)
• V. Concluding Sentence
• 1-2 sentences to conclude and transition
CONCLUSIONS
• Conclusions
• Reflect on one of the main issues or
concepts you touched upon in your
essay
ESSAYS
• In this course, you will write 5 essays
out of class
• Each essay is 1-2 pages in length
ESSAYS IN A NUTSHELL
• 1. What kind of writer are you? What is your process?
• 2. How do online classes compare to traditional
education?
• 3. Do you agree with Wallace’s rules of patriotism?
• 4. What effect did Cesar Chavez have on John
Hartmire and the labor movement?
• 5. Re-write Essay 1 based on what you have learned in
this course
ESSAY 1
• What kind of writer are you? What is
your writing process? Read “The
Transaction” by William Zinsser.
Organize your essay thematically
around concepts presented in the
Zinsser essay
PRE-WRITING TECHNIQUES
• 1. Freewriting
• 2. Outlining
• 3. Listing
• 4. Answer the basic journalistic questions
• 5. Brainstorming
• 6. Clustering
REVISION 101
• Does your essay have an interesting hook?
• Do the coherence test. Do your thesis, topic sentences,
and concluding sentences connect?
• Do your topic sentences make arguments?
• Do you use the burger metaphor for your body
paragraphs? Do you have evidence and analysis?
• Does your conclusion reflect on a related topic?
ESSAY 1: PROCESS ESSAYS
• Give precautions—what to be aware of, or
avoid
• Use transitions that clarify major steps:
first, second, third, fourth, and fifth
• Use transitions that indicate substeps:
next, after that, while, meanwhile, during,
then, later, when, as soon as, after one
hour
ESSAY 1: READINGS
• “The Transaction” by William Zinsser
• “How to Keep and Feed a Mouse” from Zen
and the Art of Writing by Ray Bradbury
• “Working Habits” from Ernest Hemingway on
Writing
• “The Philosophy of Composition” by Edgar
Allan Poe
ESSAY 2
• Compare and contrast online and
traditional education. Read Marc
Williams’ “The Online Alternative” (592594). You may also address the
following questions in your essays:
Thinking about the Reading 1, 2, 3,
and 4. Writing Practice 2 and 3.
BLOCK V POINT-BY-POINT
• There are 2 methods by which you can
organize compare and contrast essays
• 1. Point-by-Point Method: each body
paragraph examines a factor
• 2. Block Method: paragraphs are divided
into two paragraphs, one for each topic
COMPARE AND CONTRAST: POINT-BY-POINT
METHOD
• Introduction
• Body
• Factor #1: Face-to-face interaction
• Factor #2: Immediacy
• Factor #3: Convenience
• Factor #4: Presentation of information
• Conclusion
BLOCK METHOD
• Introduction
• Body
• Online Classes
• Traditional Classes
• Conclusion
TRANSITIONS TO INDICATE SIMILARITY
• also
• and
• again
• likewise
• besides
• too
• both
• similarly
• in addition
• then too
TRANSITIONS TO INDICATE DISSIMILARITY
• but
• in contrast
• however
• still
• conversely
• yet
• on the other hand
• on the contrary
• although
• nevertheless
ESSAY 2: READINGS
• “The Online Alternative” by Marc Williams
• Newspaper and online articles of your
choice about online and traditional
education
• “50 Striking Statistics about Distance
Learning in Higher Education”
ESSAY 3
• Analyze and argue for or against 3 or 4 of
Wallace’s “rules of patriotism.” Read “A ‘Good’
American Citizen” by Linda Wallace, which can be
found in the 3rd edition of Foundations First or
online at:
http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0401/p11s02coop.html. Do you agree with her rules? Which
rules do you disagree with? What rules would you
suggest? The prompt is very similar to Thinking
about the Reading question 3
MALCOLM X (PREACHER, AUTHOR, AND
ACTIVIST)
• “You’re not
supposed to be so
blind with patriotism
that you can’t face
reality. Wrong is
wrong, no matter
who says it”—
Malcolm X
EDWARD ABBEY (AMERICAN WRITER)
• “A patriot must
always be ready to
defend his country
against his
government”—
Edward Abbey
MARK TWAIN (AMERICAN AUTHOR)
• “Patriotism is
supporting your
country all the
time, and your
government when
it deserves it”—
Mark Twain
CESAR CHAVEZ (ACTIVIST)
• “In some cases
non-violence
requires more
militancy than
violence”—Cesar
Chavez
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW (ENGLISH
PLAYWRIGHT)
• “Patriotism is your
conviction that this
country is superior
to all others
because you were
born in it”-George
Bernard Shaw
HOWARD ZINN (HISTORIAN AND AUTHOR)
• “Dissent is the
highest form of
patriotism”—
Howard Zinn
ANGELA DAVIS (ACTIVIST, PROFESSOR, AND
AUTHOR)
• “The 13th
amendment to the
constitution of the
U.S. which abolished
slavery—did not
abolish slavery for
those convicted of a
crime”—Angela
Davis
ESSAY 3: DEFINITION
• “The beginning of wisdom is the definition of
terms”—Socrates (470-399 BC)
• Define the term using reliable sources
• The classification (genus, class, or species)
• The distinguishing features or characteristics
• How can similar terms be ruled out?
• What purpose or function does the term serve?
ESSAY 3: READINGS
• “A ‘Good’ American Citizen” by Linda
Wallace
• “I Have a Dream” by Dr. Martin Luther
King, Jr.
• “Ballot or the Bullet” by Malcolm X
ESSAY 4
• How was John Hartmire Jr. affected by
his father’s employment with Cesar
Chavez? What was Chavez’s effect on
California and the labor movement?
Thinking about the Reading 1, 2, 3,
and 4. Writing Practice 1
ESSAY 4: CAUSE AND EFFECT
Steps in Causal Analysis:
1. Specify the effects. Separate from the presumed cause.
2. Examine the conditions that existed
3. Ask whether or not these conditions could have caused the
effect(s)
• 4. Think about possible explanations. What might have
happened?
• 5. Test your theories. Did the presumed causes actually
produce the effect?
•
•
•
•
CONSIDERING CAUSES
• Immediate causes (those responsible for making the
phenomenon or trend begin when it did)
• Remote, background (those from before the
phenomenon or trend began)
• Perpetuating causes (those that may have contributed
to sustaining or continuing the phenomenon or trend)
• Obvious causes
• Hidden causes
SELECTING THE MOST PROMISING CAUSES
• Review your list and select five or six
causes that seem to you to provide a
plausible explanation of your subject.
Since you will next want to analyze
these causes, it would be helpful to list
them in table form—skipping five or six
times between each cause
ANALYZING PROMISING CAUSES
• Is it a necessary cause? Without it, could the phenomenon or
trend have occurred anyway?
• Is it a sufficient cause? Could it alone have caused this
phenomenon or trend?
• Would this cause affect everybody the same way?
• Would this cause always lead to phenomenon or trends like this
one?
• What particular anecdotes or examples might demonstrate the
importance of the cause?
• Do you know of any authorities who have suggested that it is an
important cause?
ESSAY 4: READINGS
• “At the Heart of a Historic Movement”
by John Hartmire
• “1984 Address” by Cesar Chavez
• Biography of Cesar Chavez
ESSAY 5
• Re-Read “The Transaction” by William
Zinsser. Consider your evolution as a
writer this semester. Revise your first
essay to focus on how your writing
process has changed during this course.
How have you used what you have
learned in this course to become a better
writer?
TIPS FOR RESEARCH
• Background info—dictionaries, encyclopedias
• When you find a source, research it: who is the author? Are
they affiliated with an institution? What are the author’s
credentials?
• Understand domain names: reliable ones—“.edu” or “.gov”,
Johns Hopkins University, Project Muse, Salon.com,
Slate.com
• Use Full-text articles only!
• Fool Proof: search Ebsco Host for journals, search subjectspecific databases (Political Science PAIS), visit
http://sosig.esrc.bris.ac.uk/, http://thomas.loc.gov/
M.L.A. WORKS CITED OR BIBLIOGRAPHY
• There are two parts to using and citing a
source: in-text citation and works cited
• In-text Citation
• Zinsser remarks, “rewriting is the essence
of writing” (Kirszner and Mandell 598).
REFERENCES
• Kirszner and Mandell. Foundations First.
• The Bedford Handbook.
• St. Martin’s Guide to Writing.