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Politics
Unit One: Ideologies
CPW4U Summer School 2016
Definition
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Ideologies are comprehensive sets of ideas by which a group makes
sense of the world
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All people have ideologies to some degree (consciously or unconsciously)
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We map out our own interpretation of the real world and its significance to
our current world situation
✤
Ideologies generally try to explain how things have come to be the way they
are and where things are going
Definition
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Ideologies are used by people to distinguish truth from falsehood
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Contemporary ideologies contain many socio-economic elements that
dominate the beliefs people adopt and the biases they reflect
✤
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These systems condition people’s behaviour
It is a belief system that explains and justifies a preferred political order for
society, either existing or proposed, and offers a strategy (process,
institutional arrangements, programs) for its attainment
Functions
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Political analyst Robert E. Lane classified a number of important functions
of political ideologies:
1. Present a simplified “cause and effect” interpretation of a complex world
2. Integrate a theory of human nature with life’s basic economic,
social and political values
3. Appear normative and moral in tone and content and aspire to
perfect our behaviour
Functions
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4. Draw their philosophical premises from constitutions, declarations,
manifestos and writings.
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5. Constitute a broad belief system and advocate reforms in the basic
fabric and structure of society.
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6. Address fundamental questions about leadership, recruitment, political
succession and electoral behaviour.
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7. Have the effect to persuade and propagandize people who learn not
to be influenced by opposing views.
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Therefore, because ideologies are value-based belief systems, they often
come into conflict and competition.
Components Of Ideologies
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1. The disposition of human nature or inherent behaviour
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2. The role of the individual in society
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3. The role of the state
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4. The sources and limits of political authority
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5. A preferred economic and social order
Human Nature
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Many questions exist regarding human nature
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examples:
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Are human beings born basically good or bad, or does social conditioning
determine their character?
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Is it possible to perfect human nature or is it fundamentally unalterable?
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Whatever view is expressed in the ideology, that view has immediate
implications for the economic, political & social preferences that flow from
its own belief systems
Human Nature
✤
The conservative view asserts that human nature is unchangeable and that
the purpose of social and political institutions is to control the undesirable
tendencies in human behaviour
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The liberal view believes in the inherent goodness of human nature, leading
to the thought that people should not be too closely controlled and directed
by government
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A democrat will believe that people are basically rational and trustworthy
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An authoritarian sees people as in need of guidance, and control of the party
or state would have no predictability and direction in their lives
Role of the Individual
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Many questions also exist regarding the role of the individual in society
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examples:
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Where does the individual fit into the total scheme of things?
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Does the state and its government serve the interests of individuals or are
individuals subservient to the goals of the state?
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Where do we draw the line on the role of the individual in the political and
social system?
Role of the Individual
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The way people act as individuals affects the opportunities for the
self-development of others
the socialist view is that the individual’s welfare is subordinate to the
welfare of the whole society: the many will benefit most if the interests of
the individuals are not taken to represent the well being of everyone
the liberalist view is that the greater liberty of one person can be the lesser
liberty of a government: it is the necessary instrument for equalizing and
maximizing individual freedom
Role of the State
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The state has been seen to derive from various sources…
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The will of God
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The social contract
(a contract between individuals to exchange liberty for security)
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A process of natural evolution
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From the family
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The institution of private property
Role of the State
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There has always been much discussion regarding where the state came
from, its role in the social & political system
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Some ideologies believe that the state is a necessary evil
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Anarchists, libertarians and ultra-conservatives see the state as a set of
institutions that attracts uncontrollable corruption, impedes social &
economic progress and threatens human liberty
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In other ideologies, the state represents the highest of human endeavors,
whose purpose is viewed as raising civilized standards
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Most modern ideologies believe that humans need a state apparatus of some
kind to cope with the many problems of surviving in a competitive
international community
Role of Political Authority
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Political authority is usually portrayed as a form of power based upon the
recognition it receives from those over whom it effects
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For some, this authority is derived from the consent of the government, while
others point to the source of political authority as the coercive will of the
state or of dictators
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The democrats and liberalists view the essence of authority as subjective,
psychological and moral: authority is an influence that is ultimately related
to legitimacy, the belief held by the citizenry that a government has the right
to rule and that a citizen ought to obey the rules of the government
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The fascists and Marxist-Leninist view is that authority is portrayed as
something that flows objectively from the coercive arm of the state,
government and party institutions
Role of Political Authority
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The totalitarianism view is there is a rigid hierarchy and rank subordination
of followers to the authority of a single/collective leadership
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Political authority has relevant meaning common to all ideologies
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Political authority is to be obeyed, not always blindly or critically, but
because compliance ensures the legitimate performance of the political
system
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Political authority is a communication between leaders and “the led,”
enabling them to relate to each other in such a way that the political system
survives, be it a democracy or dictatorship
The Economic & Social Order
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Ideologies usually reflect upon desirable economic and social conditions that
mobilize human beings for productive purposes
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questions:
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How will societies organize, protect and distribute the products of human
labour and ingenuity?
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What social and political institutions should be in place to facilitate the
required economic and social order?
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Who should reap the benefits of economic productivity and its attendant
wealth?
The Economic & Social Order
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These issues are important to consider, since there is a strong link between
the economic & social order, and the ideological nature of government
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Beliefs regarding the economic and social order are those that basically help
set out the structure of your society
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Marxists search for a more equitable way of organizing society and ensuring
that the satisfaction of individual economic needs does not contradict the
fulfillment of social needs
The Economic & Social Order
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Anarchists insist on the free and spontaneous association of citizens in the
economic and social life of society; for most anarchists, the highest social
order, and the only moral one, derives from each person’s enlightened
understanding of the social & economic interdependence of society
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Capitalists believe the economic & social system work best, and the
competitive ideal, is most likely to be achieved when people are free to
decide for themselves what they want and what they are willing to pay for it
Specific Ideologies
find the following:
Working in groups, use your
textbook to outline the key
principles of one of the following
to lead the discussion about them:
find the following:
outline the key principles of one:
Conservatism, Fascism, Liberalism,
Marxism, Socialism
Conservatism
Hearnshaw’s Ten
Principles of Conservatism
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Reverence for the Past: societies accumulate wisdom from their customs
and traditions; they respect the accomplishments of their ancestors
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Organic Conception of Society: society is greater than the sum of its parts;
takes on a communal identity and unity
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Constitutional Continuity: constitutions are indissoluble… they carry the
proven political norms and practices of the past to the present
Opposition to Revolution: radical change is rejected because it destroys
proven customs and institutions
Hearnshaw’s Ten
Principles of Conservatism
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Cautious Reform: change should be evolutionary and carefully deliberated
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Religious Basis of the State: the state has a moral, religious and sacred
character beyond the political and legal personality
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Divine Source of Legitimate Authority: political and legal authority is
Devine in its authority
Hearnshaw’s Ten
Principles of Conservatism
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Priorities of Duties to Rights: individuals have civic duties as well as
personal rights; people are obligated to fulfill them in the interest of the
entire community
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Loyalty: loyalty to family, church, school, party, institutions and country is
important
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Common Sense and Pragmatism: practical action is preferred over
theory; devotion should be to sound administration rather than prolific
legislation
Fascism
Elements
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Fascist governments are likely to gain power in nations that have (a)
undergone a brief but unsuccessful period of democracy, and (b) a preexisting industrial capacity
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Both Italy and Germany in the late 1930s support this example
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This pattern is opposite that of Communism, which often takes hold in
countries which have no previous democratic tradition and lack
industrialization
Historic Facts
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Unlike Communism, Fascism has no single definitive manifesto
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As an extremely national ideology, different countries tend to have their own
unique ideas on how to implement and maintain Fascist principles
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In 1932, Mussolini wrote The Doctrine Of Fascism, which outlined the
basic tenets of Italian Fascism
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Hitler wrote Mein Kampf over the course of his imprisonment in 1925-1926,
and it describes the ideology and values which the German Nazi party
eventually adopted
Seven Principle Elements
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All Fascist regimes share these principles:
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1. Distrust of Reason
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2. Denial of Basic Human Equality
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3. Code of Behaviour Based on Bias and Violence
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4. Governance by the Elite
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5. Totalitarianism
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6. Racism and Imperialism
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7. Opposition to International Law and Order
National Permutations
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After Fascism was adopted in Italy, several other countries attempted to
adopt a Fascist doctrine that suited their country the best
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In Germany, it was National Socialism (or Nazism) as outlined by Hitler
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Economically similar to Fascism, Nazism adopted a more racist attitude,
establishing a clear racial hierarchy: Aryans, other western Europeans, South
and Central Americans, Arabs, Blacks, Slavs, Jews and Gypsies
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Nazism had no clear stand on Asians, likely due to the close ties held with
Japan at the time
National Permutations
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Japanese Fascism also adopted a very racist stance, believing that only the
Japanese were pure Orientals
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All other Asian races were suitable for subjugation and slavery
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Japanese Fascism also did not radically change the government like
Germany or Italy: the Emperor maintained both power and god-like status
National Permutations
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Argentine Fascism — or Peronism after Juan Peron — adopted most of the
policies of Italian Fascism but kept the electoral process to present a
semblance of democracy
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In reality, though, opposition to the government was tortured and subjected
to terror, led by government-controlled mobs
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Although Peron won all elections, he lost power because of a revolution in
1955
Liberalism
Hobhouse’s Eight
Principles of Liberalism
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Rule of Law: limit the government’s power by proclaiming the supremacy
of law, to ensure the legal equality of all individuals and protect the rights of
people from arbitrary interference by officials
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Responsible Government: all government officials are accountable to the
people and can only rule by their consent
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Civil Liberties: the freedom of thought, expression, association, religion and
the press
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Constitutionalism: by means of a charter, social contract or convention, a
constitution outlines, defines and limits the exercise of governmental power
by law
Hobhouse’s Eight
Principles of Liberalism
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Individualism: the chief function of government is to foster the well-being
of each person and to permit them to reach their fulfillment
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Majority Rule: public decisions are weighted in favour of the greater
number of citizens it benefits
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Popular Sovereignty: the source of all government and public authority
flows from the people
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International Co-operation: calls for the reduction/elimination of trade
barriers, tariffs, quotas, and other instruments of economic protection in
order to foster international interaction
Marxism
Six Basic Principles
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There are six basic principles, each of will be discussed in the slides
following:
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1. Materialist conception of history
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2. Historical inevitability
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3. Alienation
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4. Labour Theory of Value
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5. Class Struggle
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6. Dictatorship of the Proletariat
Materialist Conception of History
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it asserts that there is a human necessity to produce and obtain a measure of
subsistence: the role of labour, the abundance or lack of raw materials, and
the instruments of production available in society all play key roles
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the material basis for the mode of production (or economic system)
determines the political, moral, legal and religious superstructure of society
and is the driving force behind societal development
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material lives of people determine their ideology and their supporting
institutions (rich men = capitalists, poor men = socialists)
Historical Inevitability
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History moves in predictable and calculable directions
Marx & Engel’s theory tries to explain why one economic system gives way
to another and why prediction is possible to the final historical stage of
human development: communism
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their development of human history is one of primitive communism (where
are all are equal) to slavery, feudalism, capitalism and then socialism until
communism is brought back to an enlightened people
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they believed that capitalism marked a transient stage of historical
development destined to disintegrate because of class antagonism
Alienation
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Maximized under capitalism, the source of alienation would be the
organization of work
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Individuals living in a capitalist society lose their understanding and control
of the world around them and in the process become something less than full
human beings
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Workers will feel dissociated from the process because: they compete with
other workers, they are divided and specialized, they receive only a small
portion of the value of what they produce, and the do not own the means of
production which means they have less say in how the means are actually
used
Alienation
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Marx believed that the capacity of work is a distinctive human characteristic:
humans consciously act on and change their environment, shaping their lives,
cultures and personalities in the process
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Workers see themselves as cogs in the productions of society because, in a
capitalist system, they have diminished responsibilities and are reduced to a
small part of the work process
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Work becomes an enforced activity, not a creative or satisfying one, mostly
because the profit produced by the labour of the worker goes to someone else
Labour Theory of Value
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Marx found that the majority of men, women and children live in poverty
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They were victims of a mode of production that permitted the few who did
not do the manual labour to enjoy most of the wealth the labourers produced
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true value of any commodity is derived by computing the labour that is
necessary to produce it
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The capitalist mode of production extracts surplus value from wage-labour:
the capitalists hold the difference between true value and sell value
Labour Theory of Value
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Capitalism uses that surplus value to expand capital and create competition
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Accumulation of capital generates increasing demands for labour
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Simultaneously, accumulation leads to the concentration of capital, which
places greater amounts of wealth into fewer and fewer hands
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The natural tendency of Capitalists is to expand surplus value, which in turn
feeds the impoverishment of worker because of the increased difference in
what they earn, leading to under-consumption and surplus production
because the workers cannot afford the products they are making
Class Struggle
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Marx recognized that many different social classes emerged at different
times under different modes of production
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During the Industrial Revolution, two classes emerged: the proletariat
(working class) and the bourgeoise (ruling class) which shaped the
economic destiny of the period through their “relation of production” —
major classes are landowners and Captialists, then come the wage earners
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Marx saw social classes as the building blocks of society
Class Struggle
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Classes would eventually become self-aware, and this class consciousness
would lead to organization, politicization and (finally) confrontation
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Since the state is often ruled by the ruling class (or Capitalists), the state
would then have to use its coercive power against the challenges of the
proletarian classes, leading to revolution
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For Marx, history is a dialectic of revolutionary change: a process of class
conflict and struggle involving social and political contradictions (thesis and
anti-thesis), producing a conflict out of which a new and higher social order
(synthesis) emerges — Communism
Dictatorship of the Proletariat
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After the inevitable revolution, a short temporary period of Socialist
transition would take place after the fall of Capitalism to help restore order
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This period is called the dictatorship of the proletariat
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With the state under the control of the proletarians, they can defend the gains
made during the revolution by guiding society through the inequalities and
deprivations resulting from the transformation into Communism
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The proletariat, in essence, can use political dominance to bring under
control all means of production and redistribute them evenly
Dictatorship of the Proletariat
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During the dictatorship, the state is run by a committee of proletarians who
draft laws and take actions on behalf of the proletarian class
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Under this ideal condition, goods would be distributed according to need,
and the unity of all humankind would be assured because of the elimination
of greed
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“To each according to his needs, from each according to his ability.”
Socialism
Definition
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Socialists claim to stand for equality, social justice, cooperation, progress
and individual freedom/happiness, and hope to realize all of that by the
replacement of the private enterprise economy with “public ownership,” a
system of social or state control over production and distribution
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Socialism is believed to be described as far back as Plato and the New
Testament
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Modern Socialism was conceived between the French Revolution
(democratic and parliamentary change) and the Industrial Revolution of
Great Britain (social and economic changes), creating a sense of class
consciousness
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There are two major methods of achieving a Socialist state: democratic or
violent revolution
Democratic Socialism
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The basic premise of Democratic Socialism is that all societies have to
make choices regarding the reconciliation of the individual’s welfare and the
welfare of the whole society – so by appealing to the middle classes and
achieving change through parliamentary methods, the classes can be pulled
closer together
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Utopian Socialists, such as Thomas More, Francis Bacon and Robert
Owen, looked nostalgically at earlier societies as through they were without
selfishness and social antagonisms
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The Count of Saint Simon (1760-1825) believed that private wealth,
property and enterprise should be socially administered by experts at arm’s
length from these assets to alleviate poverty and social dislocation
Democratic Socialism
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The Fabian Society (founded by Sidney Webb) believed that, through
democracy, the great social questions of the day could be addressed
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Unlike Non-Democratic Socialism (i.e., revolution), Democratic Socialism
did not look toward the complete abolition of private property and the
disappearance of the state
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It wanted Socialism more as a form of society in which full democratic
control would be exercised over wealth, and production would be controlled
by a group of responsible experts working in the interests of the whole
community
Democratic Socialism
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Socialism was seen as a long-term goal, a result of an evolutionary process
involving (1) growth of the economic efficiency, (2) education in moral
responsibility, and (3) voluntary acceptance of equal shares in
benefits/burdens
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In the 20th and 21st centuries, Democratic Socialism is a political and
economic ideology that aims at preserving individual freedom in the context
of social equality achieved through a centrally planned economy
Main Points
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While a private sector of the economy will continue to exist under Socialism,
major industries (such as manufacturing) and key corporations would be
owned by the state in the national interest
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This way, the government would be responsible for planning and directing
the economy
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Decisions concerning foreign investments, wages, and prices are placed in
the hands of public institutions
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A tax system is designed to prevent excessive profits or an undue
concentration of wealth
Summary
Ideologies are comprehensive
sets of ideas by which a group
makes sense of the world
Ideologies make sense of the world
around the society, often in reflection
of a variety of aspects… including
other ideologies
Everyone has an ideology, conscious or
not, that defines our actions… and these
ideologies are often graphed on the
political spectrum