Download Genetic Technology: Ethics

Genetic Technology
ETHICS & GENETIC SCREENING
What is ethics?
 Ethics seeks to determine what a
person should do, or the best course of
action, and provides reasons why.
 Ethics helps people decide how to
behave and treat one another.
 Ethics considers the effects a decision
will have on individuals, families,
communities, institutions and societies.
Is it Ethics?
 Scientific questions describe what is
 Ethical questions seek to determine what people
should do
 Legal questions help determine a minimum standard
that should be followed
 Ethical questions differ from personal preference
issues because the circumstance at hand may involve
an individual or group that might be harmed,
disrespected or disadvantaged
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These questions move us beyond our own cultural or habitual
preferences
Identify each question as scientific, ethical, legal
or personal preference.
 How can a gene from a human being be inserted into a
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plant?
Should people who donate a kidney be able to choose
who receives it?
Who should receive a vaccine that is in short supply- a
very young or very old person?
Is it illegal to sell a kidney in the United States?
What kind of ice cream flavor is the best?
Does the United States permit the death penalty?
Is it fair to punish every cheater to the same degree, no
matter the circumstances?
Answers
 How can a gene from a human being be inserted into
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a plant? S
Should people who donate a kidney be able to choose
who receives it? E
Who should receive a vaccine that is in short supply- a
very young or very old person? E
Is it illegal to sell a kidney in the United States? L
What kind of ice cream flavor is the best? P
Does the United States permit the death penalty? L
Is it fair to punish every cheater to the same degree,
no matter the circumstances? E
Making an Ethical Decision
 Step 1: Determine the ethical question at hand
 Step 2: Consider the facts
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Be complete! Include all relevant facts!
 Step 3: Who are the stakeholders?
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This might include individuals, groups, communities,
institutions, society, companies, environment, animals, etc.
 Step 4: Consider your options
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How will each stakeholder be effected?
Think about consequences, rights, respect, and justice!
List the pros and cons of each option.
 Step 5: Take an ethical position
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Defend your position in a well-thought out manner.
Example
 A group of college students is staying up late together to
study for exams. Several of them have been drinking
coffee all day and are wide awake, although feeling
jittery. One of the students, Lisa, mentions that she has
recently started taking a prescription medication that
helps her stay awake because of a medical condition. Lisa
had previously been a heavy coffee drinker, consuming
four or more cups of coffee a day in her struggle to stay
awake. Since starting on the new medication, she is able
to stay awake for easily more than 24 hours and is not
experiencing any serious negative side effects. “It’s better
than coffee,” she tells her friends, “but it is a lot more
expensive.”
What is the ethical question?
Consider the facts
Coffee drinks multiple cups a day
No ill side effects from the medicine
Cost difference pills are more expensive
Overuse of the drug
Coffee makes jittery
Who are the stakeholders?
What are your options?
Make a decision!
Genetic Screening
 You will now work with a group to make an ethical
decision based on a question involving genetic
screening.
 Work through all 5 steps of good decision making,
keeping a record or your work.
 Be prepared to share your group’s scenario, process,
and decision with the class!
Genetic Screening
How does it work?
 The process of analyzing DNA samples to detect the presence of a gene or
genes associated with an inherited disorder.
 Gene tests (also called DNA-based tests), the newest and most
sophisticated of the techniques used to test for genetic disorders, involve
direct examination of the DNA molecule itself.
 In gene tests, scientists scan a patient's DNA sample for mutated
sequences. A DNA sample can be obtained from any tissue, including
blood. For some types of gene tests, researchers design short pieces of DNA
called probes, whose sequences are complementary to the mutated
sequences
 These probes will seek their complement among the three billion base pairs
of an individual's genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the
patient's genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation.
Genetic Screening
How is it being used?
 Genetic tests are used for several reasons, including:
 carrier screening, which involves identifying unaffected individuals
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who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies
for the disease to be expressed
preimplantation genetic diagnosis
prenatal diagnostic testing
newborn screening
presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders such as
Huntington's disease
presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adultonset cancers and Alzheimer's disease
confirmational diagnosis of a symptomatic individual
forensic/identity testing
Ethical Implications of Genetic Screening
Pros
Cons
Gene testing already has dramatically
improved lives.
Allows families to avoid having children
with devastating diseases or identify
people at high risk for conditions that
may be preventable
uncertainties surrounding test
interpretation
current lack of available medical
options for these diseases
tests' potential for provoking anxiety
How does personal genetic information
affect an individual and society's
perceptions of that individual?
Amniocentesis
This test is usually carried out between 11 - 20 weeks of pregnancy
DNA FINGERPRINTING
HOW DNA FINGERPRINTING WORKS
To identify individuals, forensic scientists scan 13
DNA regions, or loci, that vary from person to
person and use the data to create a DNA profile
of that individual (sometimes called a DNA
fingerprint).
 There is an extremely small chance that another
person has the same DNA profile for a particular
set of 13 regions.
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SOME EXAMPLES OF DNA USES FOR
FORENSIC IDENTIFICATION
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Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match
evidence left at crime scenes
Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes
Identify crime and catastrophe victims
Establish paternity and other family relationships
Identify endangered and protected species as an aid
to wildlife officials (could be used for prosecuting
poachers)
Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute
air, water, soil, and food
Match organ donors with recipients in transplant
programs
Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds
Authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine
NATIONAL DNA DATABANK: CODIS
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The COmbined DNA Index System, CODIS,
currently has two indexes –
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the Convicted Offender Index
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The Forensic Index
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contains DNA profiles of individuals convicted of felony sex
offenses (and other violent crimes).
contains DNA profiles developed from crime scene evidence.
CODIS utilizes computer software to
automatically search its two indexes for matching
DNA profiles.
PRIVACY ISSUES
Collected samples are stored, and many state
laws do not require the destruction of a DNA
record or sample after a conviction has been
overturned.
 So there is a chance that a person's entire
genome may be available —regardless of whether
they were convicted or not.
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KATIE’S BILL
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Katie's Bill: a New Mexico law that requires
the police to take DNA samples from
suspects in most felony arrests
Before 2006, New Mexico laws required DNA to be
sampled only from convicted felons. The bill is named
for Katie Sepich, whose 2003 murder went unsolved
until her killer's DNA entered the database in 2005
when he was convinced of another felony. Her killer
had been arrested, but not convicted, for burglary
prior to 2005.
 Opponents of the law assert that it infringes on the
privacy and rights of the innocent.
 Cleared suspects can have their DNA samples
removed from the state database, but only after being
arrested.
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FOURTH AMENDMENT
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Fourth Amendment: rights against
unreasonable search and seizure
Does Katie’s Bill violate this?
 Civil liberties advocates say the law could be abused
to justify arrests made on less than probable cause
just to obtain DNA evidence.
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LAWS
As of September 2007, all 50 states have laws that
require convicted sex offenders to submit DNA
 44 states have laws that require convicted felons to
submit DNA
 9 states require DNA samples from those convicted of
certain misdemeanors
 11 states have laws authorizing arrestee DNA
sampling
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POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES OF
BANKING ARRESTEE DNA
Major crimes often involve people who also have
committed other offenses. Having DNA banked
potentially could make it easier to identify
suspects, just as fingerprint databases do.
 Innocent people currently are incarcerated for
crimes they did not commit; if DNA samples had
been taken at the time of arrest, these
individuals could have been proven innocent and
thereby avoided incarceration..
 Banking arrestees' DNA instead of banking only
that of convicted criminals could result in
financial savings in investigation, prosecution,
and incarceration.
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POTENTIAL DISADVANTAGES OF
BANKING ARRESTEE DNA
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Arrestees often are found innocent of crimes. The
retention of innocent people's DNA raises significant
ethical and social issues.
If people’s DNA is in police databases, they might be
identified as matches or partial matches to DNA
found at crime scenes. This occurs even with innocent
people, for instance, if an individual had been at a
crime scene earlier or had a similar DNA profile to
the actual criminal.
Sensitive genetic information, such as family
relationships and disease susceptibility, can be
obtained from DNA samples. Police, forensic science
services, and researchers using the database have
access to people’s DNA without their consent. This
can be seen as an intrusion of personal privacy and a
violation of civil liberties.
POTENTIAL DISADVANTAGES OF
BANKING ARRESTEE DNA (CONTINUED)
Studies of the United Kingdom’s criminal
database, which retains the DNA samples of all
suspects, show that ethnic minorities are over
represented in the population of arrestees and
are, therefore, overrepresented in the criminal
DNA database. This raises the concern of an
institutionalized ethnic bias in the criminal
justice system.
 Even the most secure database has a chance of
being compromised.
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JOURNAL
Answer the journal questions in your note packet.
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Would you allow a sample of your DNA to be
used for comparison in a crime scene? Why or
why not?
Would you want your DNA to be kept in a
database for future reference? Why or why not?
Genetic modification is a special set of technologies
that alter the genetic makeup of organisms such as
animals, plants, or bacteria.
GMO’s; How do they work?
 Combining genes from different organisms is known
as recombinant DNA technology, and the resulting
organism is said to be "genetically modified,"
"genetically engineered," or "transgenic.“
 Researchers can take certain genes from a source
organism and put them into another plant or animal
 Locating genes for important traits—such as those
conferring insect resistance or desired nutrients—is
one of the most limiting steps in the process.
GMO’s; How is it being used?
 GM products (current or those in development)
include medicines and vaccines, foods and food
ingredients, feeds, and fibers.
 In 2006, 252 million acres of transgenic crops were
planted in 22 countries by 10.3 million farmers.
 The majority of these crops were herbicide- and
insect-resistant soybeans, corn, cotton, canola, and
alfalfa.
 Other crops grown commercially or field-tested are a sweet
potato resistant to a virus that could decimate most of the
African harvest, rice with increased iron and vitamins that
may alleviate chronic malnutrition in Asian countries, and
a variety of plants able to survive weather extremes.
 On the horizon are bananas that produce human vaccines
against infectious diseases such as hepatitis B; fish that
mature more quickly; cows that are resistant to bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease); fruit and
nut trees that yield years earlier, and plants that produce
new plastics with unique properties.
Ethical Implications of GMO’s
Pros
Crops
Reduced maturation time
Increased nutrients, yields, and stress
tolerance
Improved resistance to disease, pests, and
herbicides
Animals
Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk
Improved animal health and diagnostic
methods
Environment
"Friendly" bioherbicides and bioinsecticides
Conservation of soil, water, and energy
Society
Increased food security for growing
populations
Cons
Safety
Potential human health impacts,
including allergens, transfer of
antibiotic resistance markers, unknown
effects
Potential environmental impacts,
including: unknown effects on other
organisms (e.g., soil microbes), and loss
of flora and fauna biodiversity
Access and Intellectual Property
Domination of world food production
by a few companies
Ethics
Violation of natural organisms'
intrinsic values
Tampering with nature by mixing genes
among species
Objections to consuming animal genes
3 Types of Cloning
DNA Cloning
Reproductive Cloning
Therapeutic Cloning
DNA Cloning
 How does it work?-copying small
pieces of DNA (usually 1-2 genes) from
one organism into a second organism
 How is it being used?
 Make bacteria grow things for us (like
insulin)
 Genetically modified foods
Reproductive Cloning
 How does it work?-making a new plant or
animal that is an exact genetic copy of
another through non-sexual reproduction
 How is it being used?
 Make more of "special" animals (like an
incredibly fast horse, a cow that makes a
huge amount of milk, Mighty Mouse, etc.)
 Help save endangered species (like panda)
Therapeutic Cloning
 How does it work? the use of stem cells to
research and hopefully cure human diseases
 How is it being used?
 Possibly "grow" organs that are perfect
matches thus eliminating organ
transplant problems
 Potentially cure Parkinson's, Alzheimer's,
spinal cord injuries, and more
Ethical Implications of Cloning;
Pros
• Replacing organs and other tissues
from a single cell
• Infertility
• Replacing a lost child
• Creating donor people
• Gene therapy
• Saving endangered species
• Reversing the ageing process
Genetic engineering of organisms
Sequencing genomes.
Cons
• Low success rate (Dolly took 276
attempts)
Expensive
• Tumors
• Genetic defects
• Over-growth syndrome
• Pre-mature ageing (genetic age)
• Massive quantities of human eggs
required
• Reduction in adaptability – genetic
uniformity
• Insertion of foreign genes
• Lack of knowledge
Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into
many different types of cells in the body. They serve as a
repair system for the body. There are two main types of
stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
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Embryonic stem cells, as their name
suggests, are derived from embryos. Most
embryonic stem cells are derived from
embryos that develop from eggs that have
been fertilized in vitro—in an in vitro
fertilization clinic—and then donated for
research purposes with informed consent of
the donors. They are not derived from eggs
fertilized in a woman's body.
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Scientists have been able to do experiments
with human embryonic stem cells (hESC) only
since 1998.
Although hESCs are thought to offer potential
cures and therapies for many devastating
diseases, research using them is still in its
early stages.
Trials using hESCs to achieve restoration of
spinal cord function
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The primary roles of adult stem cells in a
living organism are to maintain and repair the
tissue in which they are found.
Scientists have found adult stem cells in
many more tissues than they once thought
possible. This finding has led researchers and
clinicians to ask whether adult stem cells
could be used for transplants.
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Some of the most serious medical conditions,
such as cancer and birth defects, are due to
abnormal cell division and differentiation. If
we understand how Stem Cells work, we can
understand how to treat these disorders
Human stem cells could also be used to test
new drugs. For example, new medications
could be tested for safety on differentiated
cells generated from human stem cell lines,
instead of on humans.
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Perhaps the most important potential
application of human stem cells is the
generation of cells and tissues that could be
used for cell-based therapies.
Cell-based therapies: Stem cells are used to
repair damaged or destroyed cells or tissues
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One controversy concerned the moral status of
stem cells. Are they morally protectable entities,
or are they more like other disposable tissues
gleaned from the human body?
A second issue concerned the derivation of stem
cells. Could research go forward that depended
on the dissection of living human embryos?
Finally, there was the question whether to permit
the creation of research embryos.
Pros
Cons
Human embryonic stem cell (HESC)
research offers much hope for
alleviating the human suffering
brought on by the ravages of
disease and injury
Scientists have learned how to
stimulate a patient's own cells to
behave like embryonic stem cells
Controversy centered on the moral
implications of destroying human
embryos.
iPS cells have the potential to
develop into a human embryo, in
effect producing a clone of the
donor.
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Stem cell therapies are not new. Doctors have
been performing bone marrow stem cell
transplants for decades.
But when scientists learned how to remove
stem cells from human embryos in 1998,
both excitement and controversy ensued.
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The excitement was due to the huge potential
these cells have in curing human disease.
The controversy centered on the moral
implications of destroying human embryos.
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New breakthroughs may soon bring this
debate to an end.
Scientists have learned how to stimulate a
patient's own cells to behave like embryonic
stem cells.
These so-called induced pluripotent stem
(iPS) cells are reducing the need for human
embryos in research and opening up exciting
new possibilities for stem cell therapies.
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Both human embryonic stem (hES) cells and
induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells can
become any type of cell in the body.
While hES cells are isolated from an embryo,
iPS cells can be made from adult cells.