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2008 级 英语专业 《英语语法》课程
课
题
2009 年
秋-春 两个学期
Ellipsis，Substitution，
Postponement, Fronting and
计划
Inversion
时数
4
授课
类型
理论
教学目的
Understanding sentence pattern changes for communication
附
教学重点
Appropriate changes for communication
或
教学难点
Grammatical vs informatic variation for interlinguistic communication
说
重要语言点
Ellipsis，Substitution，Postponement, Fronting and Inversion
Presentation through guiding questions (5 minutes) about
II.
Practice (40 minutes) through reading and discussing questions about
functions
III.
Practice (40 minutes) through questions about functions of
IV.
Summary (5 minutes) through discussions about usages of relative and
conditional clauses, indirect and direct speeches, and modifiers
V.
Detailed information about
（
code caozhixi
Ellipsis
Like substitution, ellipsis is also a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and
achieving textual cohesion. If substitution is the replacement of an identical item by a
学 substitute, ellipsis means omission of the item or replacement of the item by a zero
substitute. As ellipsis and substitution perform the same function, they are, in many
cases, interchangeable, eg..
过
A.. Which do you prefer, the red or the green scarf?
B.. I'd like the red (scarf).
程
I'd like the red one.
When an identical ite~n is omitted or replaced, attention is focused on the neighbouring
element. Therefore, ellipsis and substitution are also means of emphasis.
1 Ellipsis in coordinate constructions
Ellipsis is most frequently found in coordinate constructions--in compound
sentences, coordinate noun phrases, and coordinate prepositional phrases.
1) Ellipsis in compound sentences
In a compound sentence, an identical subject in the second coordinate clause is
usually omitted. If the second clause has a different subject but an identical operator, the
subject is retained but the operator omitted, and this kind of omission is sometimes
accompanied by that of neighbouring auxiliaries, eg..
John must have been playing football and Mary (must have been) doing her
homework.
教
明
Email box: [email protected]
I.
记
：
）
1
If the second coordinate clause has an identical subject and an identical main verb,
both the subject and the main verb can be omitted, eg..
His suggestions made John happy but (his suggestions made) Mary angry. If, on the
other hand, the second clause has a different subject but
an identical predication (that is, an identical "main verb + complementation"), one of the
predications can be left out either in the first coordinate clause or in the second, eg..
George will take the course and Bob may (take the course).
George will (take the course), and Bob may, take the course.
If the second clause has an identical subject and an identical "operator +
predication" but a different adverbial, the subject and the predication can be omitted,
while the adverbial should be retained together with the operator, eg..
John will meet my family tonight and (John) will (meet my family) again tomorrow.
If the second clause has a different subject and predicator but an identical object or
subject complement, the object or subject complement in the first clause is usually left
out, eg..
John likes (Mary), but Peter hates, Mary.
George was (angry), and Bob certainly seemed, angry.
Ellipsis does not occur with be, have or do if they are used as auxiliaries in one
clause and as main verbs in the other. Likewise, the auxiliary be cannot be omitted if it
forms the passive in one clause and the progressive in the other, eg..
Mike was exasperated, and was the first guest to leave.
Jane was terrified and was clutching my hand.
2) Ellipsis in noun phrases
If two coordinate noun phrases in the form of "determiner + premodifier +
noun"are identical in headwords, it is normal for one of the headwords to be ellipted.
What, then, remains of the elliptical noun phrase will only be "determiner +
premodifier". Note the ellipsis of the second headword:
She wore the red dress, but the blue suits her better.
What is the difference between a direct question and an indirect?
It is also possible to omit the first headword, eg..
Old (men) and young men were invited.
Revolution means a moral (change) as well as a material change.
There is no ellipsis of headword, however, if the coordinate modifiers describe the
qualities of one and the same object, eg..
Honest and clever students always succeed.
Ellipsis of the noun headword is not limited to coordinate constructions. This kind
of omission is likely to occur in non-coordinate noun phrases. It is found in "independent
genitive" and in some idiomatic expressions, eg.
The old man breathed his last.
He ventured into the unknown.
William's is an old television.
3) Ellipsis in prepositional phrases
When two or more prepositional phrases are identical in complementation, it is
usually the complementation of the first phrase that is omitted. If, on the other hand, the
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prepositions are identical, it is the first preposition that is left out, eg:
A government of and by and for the exploiting classes cannot be popular among the
people.
I have heard (about) and read about your adventures.
2 Ellipsis in complex sentences
In complex sentences, ellipsis commonly occurs in subordinate clauses, while in
main clauses only the initial elements are likely to be ellipted.
1) Ellipsis in main clauses
In informal style, the initial elements of some utterances are often omitted. This
kind of ellipsis is independent of the context, and therefore is called "situational ellipsis",
eg..
(I'm) Sorry I've kept you waiting so long.
(It is) No / Small wonder they all loved the boy dearly.
In informal style, it is also possible for a whole main clause to be left out in cases
where it is necessary to avoid repetition of the main clause, eg..
A.. Are you determined to go?
B.. Unless my parents do not approve of it.
2) Ellipsis in adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses generally admit of end deletion when they occur after the main
clause, eg:
John will play the guitar if Mary will (play the guitar).
When two coordinate adverbial clauses are introduced by identical subordinators, the
subordinator of the second clause can be left out, eg.
If I can find the letter and (if) you are interested in it, I'll let you have it.
If two coordinate adverbial clauses are identical in everything except the subordinator,
we may keep the first subordinator and omit the rest of the first clause or keep the second
subordinator and leave out the rest of the second clause, eg..
I am prepared to meet them when (they like) and where they like.
They will be arriving before the show begins or after (the show begins).
Adverbial clauses do not admit of omission of the subject or that of "subject +
operator", but a non-finite or verbless clause with subordinator might be viewed as an
adverbial clause with the subject and operator omitted, eg..
While (I was) waiting, I was reading some old magazines.
3) Ellipsis in nominal that-clauses
In compound-complex sentences, the identical predication of a nominal that-clause
can sometimes be omitted, eg:
Mike has prepared his lesson, but I know that Peter hasn't (prepared his lesson).
In short responses such as "I think not", "I hope not", and "I'm afraid not", the
negative word not here may be viewed either as a clausal substitute or as standing for an
elliptical that-clause, eg..
A: Will it rain today?
B.. I hope (that it will) not (rain).
If two coordinate that-clauses are identical in subject but different in predicate, the
second that may be omitted together with the subject and operator of the second clause,
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eg..
Tell him that I will call to see him and (that I will) have lunch with him.
But in some contexts where the that-clause is itself a complex clause, the omission of
that will sometimes lead to ambiguity, eg..
Tell him ( ) if he is at home I'll call to see him.
4) Ellipsis in nominal wh-clauses
If the predicate of a wh-clause is identical with that of the main clause, the
predicate of the wh-clause may be omitted, only with the wh-word retained, eg:
Someone has used my car, but I don't know who (has used my car).
If the predicator of the wh-clause is in the passive voice, the whole clause may be
omitted only with the by-phrase retained, eg..
The cup was broken by someone, but I wonder by whom (the cup was broken).
If two coordinate clauses are introduced by identical wh-words, the wh-word of
the second clause is usually omitted, eg..
I noticed how Mary talked to them and (how) they answered her.
If, on the other hand, two coordinate wh-clauses are identical in subject and predicate but
different in wh-word, the first clause may be omitted except the wh-word, eg..
I don't know when (I shall meet him) and where I shall meet him.
Postponement, Fronting and Inversion
Modern English has a more or less fixed word order in sentence construction.
According to its normal, or natural, order, the subject usually comes first and the
predicate follows the subject. Apart from the adverbial which is mobile, the positions of
the other four clause elements -- subject, predicator, object, and complement --are almost
fixed, that is, the subject precedes the predicator which is followed by the object or the
complement, if any. When the object or the complement, which normally appears after
the subject and the predicator, is moved to the initial position, it receives emphasis.
Likewise, a similar effect is produced if an initial element is purposely shifted to the end
of the sentence. The present lecture will deal with these grammatical devices.
1 Postponement
Postponement means delaying the appearance of a grammatical unit till a later
time. Before elaborating on this grammatical device, we will start with the principles of
"end focus" and "end weight" which are closely related to postponement as a device for
achieving emphasis.
1) End focus and end weight
As an information unit, the sentence normally consists of two parts: old
information + new information. Old information (also called "given / known
information") is the kind of information which, the speaker assumes, is already known to
the hearer, and this is usually expressed by the subject. New information, usually
expressed by the predicate, is the message to be conveyed, and the focus or the most
important part of the message usually occupies the end position in the sentence. That is
what we call information focus or "end focus".
Closely related to the principle of "end focus" is that of "end weight", which
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manifests itself in the fact that the construction of the subject is usually shorter and less
complicated than that of the predicate where the new information lies. According to the
principle of "end weight", sentences are generally constructed in such a way as to avoid
being top-heavy or awkwardly unbalanced. For example, in denoting that someone has
the habit of smoking, we prefer to say "He smokes cigarettes" rather than "He smokes."
It seems that the multi-word structure of predicate in the former sentence sounds better
conformed to usage.
2) Postponement of key words
Based on the principles mentioned above, the end position in a sentence is
normally reserved for highlighting key words. Hence, postponement becomes a
grammatical device for achieving emphasis. In ditransitive complementation, for
example, there are two possible orderings: the indirect object may be placed either before
or after the direct, eg:
He gave me a book.
He gave a book to me.
In the first sentence, prominence is given to "a book", while in the second to "me". The
first sentence is used in answer to "What did he give you?" and the second in answer to
"Who did he give a book to?" Thus, whether the indirect object precedes the direct object
or vice versa depends on which object is to be highlighted. This shows the importance of
final placement in the ordering of words.
2 Fronting and inversion
Fronting means the placement of a normally non-initial element at the head of a
sentence so as to give prominence and lend emphasis. There are two types of fronting:
fronting without inversion and fronting with inversion.
1) Fronting without inversion
This type of fronting usually occurs when the object or the subject / object
complement is initially placed for textual cohesion, eg:
Mr white fried two pieces of fish. One of these he fed to his cat. The other he ate
himself.
We really should not resent being called paupers. Paupers we are, and paupers
we shall remain.
This type of fronting also occurs when the object or the complement is initially
placed to acquire a contrastive meaning and to ensure balance in sentence structure , eg:
Joan he gave nothing, but George he gave 10 shillings.
Fool Joe may be, but thief he is not.
2) Fronting with ,inversion
The fronting of the subject complement is often associated with inversion when
the subject is too long or is heavily modified, eg:
Happy indeed are those who receive marvellous news after a long silence.
Inversion also takes place when the fronted object is "not a + noun" or "not a single ~
noun", eg:
I had a terrible time playing roulette at the casino. Not a winning number did I have
the whole night.
Inversion is most frequently found in sentences where an adverbial is fronted. Here we
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may classify two types of inversion., full inversion and partial inversion. "Full inversion"
means reversal of the subject and the whole predicate; "partial inversion" means reversal
of the subject and the operator only. The fronted adverbials that cause inversion may be
summed up as follows:
a) Full inversion commonly occurs when the fronted adverbial is a locative or an
onomatopoeia and when the predicator is a verb of motion such as come or go, eg.
There was a sudden gust of wind, and away went his hat.
Bang, bang, bang came three reports of firecrackers ...
b) Full inversion is also common when the fronted adverbial is
a prepositional phrase denoting place, eg.
In this chapter will be found a partial answer to this question.
c) Partial inversion usually takes place when the fronted adverbial
comprises a negative word or a word with negative implication,
eg:
Never have I found him in such a good mood.
Rarely do I get invited into his office alone.
d) Partial inversion is necessary when the fronted adverbial is "only + adverb /
prepositional phrase / adverbial clause", eg.
Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was missing.
Only through sheer luck did he manage to get some tickets.
Likewise, partial inversion occurs when the sentence is introduced by "Not only ...
(but also)", eg:
Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.
e) Inversion normally takes place when a sentence is introduced by the correlative
so (... that). When initial so modifies an adjective, there is full inversion:
So dangerous were the avalanches that skiing had to be stopped.
When initial so modifies an adverb, there is partial inversion:
So quickly did the workmen finish the job that they were highly praised.
f) Partial inversion is possible when the adverbial of manner or frequency is
fronted. If the subject is heavily modified, then even full inversion is possible, eg:
Gladly would I pay more if I could get better service.
Many a time has Mike given me good advice.
Thus began an intricate minuet between us and the Chinese.
There are cases, however, where a fronted adverbial of manner does not cause
inversion at all, eg.
Stealthily the girl crept out of the door.
Substitution
Substitution is a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual
cohesion. There are three kinds of substitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution,
and clausal substitution, and therefore three kinds of substitutes., nominal substitutes,
verbal substitutes, and clausal substitutes.
1 Nominal substitution
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We shall start with nominal substitution and nominal substitutes.
1) What is nominal substitution
Nominal substitution means the replacement of a noun or a noun phrase by a
nominal substitute, eg..
He doesn't like this book. Show him a more interesting one.
If you want a typewriter, they will provide you with one.
There are good films as well as bad ones.
Nominal substitutes include such items as one, ones, the same,
the kind, the sort, eg.Slang disappears quickly, especially the juvenile sort.
Nominal substitutes also include some indefinite pronouns, such asall, both,
some, any, enough, several, none, many, much, ( a ) few , (a) little, the other, others,
another, either, neither, etc, eg:
Can you get me some nails? I need some.
I don't want any more food. I've had enough.
2) Uses of one/ones as substitutes
Special attention will be paid to the uses of nominal substitutes one and ones.
a) Substitute one is commonly used to replace a count noun or a countable noun
phrase, but ones can only replace a plural noun and cannot replace a whole noun phrase.
Both one and ones can be used for ersonal as well as non-personal reference, eg..
The new design is much better than the old one.
There were a few young people with some old ones in the house.
b) When one replaces the headword of a noun phrase, it usually takes a
determiner, but this substitute cannot be immediately preceded by an indefinite article or
a possessive determiner unless they are intervened by a premodifier, eg:
Can I have a melon? I'd like a big one.
Your car isn't fast enough. Let's take his new one
One and ones cannot collocate with both or own, nor can they collocate with
the cardinal numerals, eg..
I prefer red roses to white ones, but my wife likes both. (not * both ones)
If there's any difficulty about cars, we can bring our own. (not * our own ones )
You have four children. I have only two. (not * two ones)
c) When one is substituted for a whole noun phrase, it does not take any
determiner or premodifier. In that case, one is used in generic reference. Here lies the
difference between nominal substitution and personal / demonstrative reference.
Compare:
I need this dictionary, but I can't afford it.
I need a good dictionary, but I can't afford one.
d) As a nominal substitute, ones can only replace the headword of a noun phrase,
and therefore is always preceded by "determiner +premodifier", eg..
I have a new dictionary and several old ones.
e) One and ones can be omitted when they take such determiners as this / these,
that / those, which, either, neither, another, the last and the next, eg.
Judy broke the coffee-pot, so she has to buy another (one).
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Some of your answers were correct, but I can't remember which (ones).
Ellipsis is also possible when one and ones take the definite article with a restrictive
premodifier, eg..
I prefer the large bottle to the small (one).
or when they collocate with a premodifying adjective in comparative or superlative
degree, eg:
If you offer him cookies, he will take a handful of the biggest (ones).
3) Nominal substitute vs generic pronoun or cardinal numeral
We must learn to distinguish between the one used as nominal substitute and the
one as generic pronoun or cardinal numeral. Compare:
One can't be too careful in matters like this.
My old car is much better than the new one.
I don't want too many copies. One is enough.
4) Nominal substitute vs one / ones as lexical item
Distinction should also be drawn between nominal substitute one / ones and one /
ones used in special senses. Compare:
Oh, you are a one ( -- a bold amusing person), telling that joke in front of the priest.
George went on drinking, and by and by he fell to misusing his wife and the little
ones ( -- his children).
2 Verbal substitution
Let us move on to verbal substitution and verbal substitutes.
1) What is verbal substitution
Verbal substitution means the replacement of a verb element by a verbal substitute
do or do so. What is replaced by substitute do may be "main verb + complementation",
eg:
A: We all hate hypocrisy.
B: Yes, everybody does. (does = hates hypocrisy)
It may also be the main verb alone, eg:
A: Have they moved the furniture?
B.. They have done ( = moved) the desks, but that's all so far.
Verbal substitute do, when used to replace !'main verb + complementation', usually
occurs in the affirmative form. Its negative form does not represent verbal substitution
but verbal ellipsis. Compare:
A.. Does Peter speak French?
B.. Yes, he does ( = speaks French).
No,he doesn't (speak French).
2) Uses of verbal substitutes
The principal uses of the verbal substitutes may be summarized as follows:
a) From the examples cited above, we can see that the verb replaced by substitute
do is usually a notional verb. If the verb replaced is transitive, its object is usually
retained, eg:
She plays the piano better than she does the guitar.
As substitute do is itself a main verb, it can go with auxiliaries, eg:
John has never acted as he should have done.
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When the substitute occurs in negative or interrogative sentences, it will often combine
with an appropriate form of auxiliary do, eg:
A: Mary studies modern history and doesn't do modern languages.
B: Does she do ancient history, too?
A: No, she doesn't.
When substitute do is used to replace a main verb, it applies to dynamic verbs
only, but when it replaces "main verb + complementation", it applies to both dynamic
and stative verbs. Here is a difference between British and American English. In British
English, substitute do applies to any kind of main verb except the stative be and have; in
American English, however, an ellipsis or repetition of the stative verb is preferable.
Compare:
Paula looks very happy. She seems happier now than she did ( = seemed happy) last
time we met. (British English)
Paula looks very happy. She seems happier now than she seemed last time we met.
(American English)
b) Substitute do can combine with so to form a compound substitute do so, which
can be used to replace a predication of "verb +object" or "verb + adverbial", eg.
He said he would tell me the news, but he didn't do so.
He smokes like a chimney, Does his brother do so?
This form is sometimes interchangeable with do it and do that.
c) Substitute do can also combine with so to form two patterns of short-response..
"So + do + subject" and "So + subject + do", eg.
A: I like playing football.
B: So do I.
So does my brother.
So did my father.
A: The students all work hard.
B: So they do.
3 Clausal substitution
Whereas the substitutes discussed previously only replace parts of phrases or clauses,
so and not may substitute for complete clauses.
1) What is clausal substitution
Clausal substitution means the replacement of a clause by a clausal substitute—so
or not, eg:
A: Do you think he'll come tomorrow?
B: Yes, I think so.
No, I think not.
As clausal substitutes, so and not can go with if to form verbless clauses "if so" and "if
not", eg.
They say he will come tonight. If so, the meeting will be held tomorrow. If not,
there won't be any meeting tomorrow.
2) Uses of clausal substitutes
As clausal substitutes, so and not are commonly used to replace that-clauses
representing a belief, an assumption or an emotion with a tone of uncertainty or
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tentativeness. These substitutes normally go with such expressions as I'm afraid , I
believe, I guess, I fear, I suppose, I think, etc. In sentences with transferred negation, it is
more natural to say "I don't think so", "I don't suppose so", etc. In sentences expressing
certainty or doubt, substitute so is impossible, eg:
A: Are the girls coming to the party?
B: I'm sure they are ! I'm sure of it.
I doubt if they are / I doubt it.
There is also difference between so and not used as clausal substitutes. Substitute
so can go with some communication verbs such as say, tell, etc, eg.
A: The Yankees will win the game.
B: All my friends say so.
A: How do you know that he is leaving soon?
B: He told me so.
Substitute not cannot be used this way except in sentences with a generic pronoun as
subject, eg.
A: Are the Yankees a very strong team?
B: No, they say not.
Substitute not can go with some modal adverbs such as perhaps , possibly, probably,
certainly, surely, etc to form some short responses, eg..
A: Is your brother going with you?
B: Perhaps not / Possibly not / Surely not.
But substitute so cannot be used in such utterances. Substitute not can also go with why
to form an elliptical question "Why not?", whereas so is rarely used in such collocation,
eg.
A: I didn't stop him.
B: Why not?
From Sentence to Text
The previous lectures are chiefly concerned with morphology and syntax in spite of
the fact that the use of sentences is often described in connection with contexts. In this
last lecture we shall examine the role of sentences in the construction of a text or
connected discourse.
1 Sentence and text
As has been pointed out, the sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit and
also the basic linguistic unit constituting a text. A text, spoken or written, is a structurally
cohesive and semantically coherent unit realized by a string of sentences for
communicative purposes.
1) Sentence meaning and communicative function
No authentic sentences exist in a vacuum; they are invariably associated with a
context or situation in which they are used, and it is the context or situation that
determines the communicative function of sentences.
Every sentence has its meaning, which is closely related to, but can by no means
be equated with, its communicative function. Sentences, as we know, fall into four types,
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statement, question, command, and exclamation. This classification, which is chiefly
based on grammatical structure, is far from satisfactory in terms of communicative
function. Statements, for example, are not always used to state a fact, and questions are
not always used to ask a question. In different contexts or situations, one and the same
sentence may perform different communicative functions; in the meantime, one and the
same communicative function may also be performed by different types of sentences.
Isolated from a specific context or situation, it is practically impossible to ascertain what
communicative function a sentence performs.
2) Correctness and appropriacy
In communication, attention should be paid not only to the correctness but to the
appropriacy of sentences used in a given context or situation. Correctness is concerned
with grammatical structure, while appropriacy with the question whether a sentence is
used in the right place, eg:
A:. What's your brother doing?
B: ? He works in a factory.
B's answer, though grammatically correct, is beside the point. This is a problem of
appropriacy.
Appropriacy is determined by many factors. It is determined by register, by
genre, by cultural norms, and above all by context or situation. Grammatically, for
example, quite a number of active sentences can be transformed into the passive, and
vice Versa. We can either say "The storm destroyed the crops" or "The crops were
destroyed by the storm", butin answer toga specific question, for instance, "What
happened to the crops?" only the passive form is appropriate, because according to the
principle of "end focus", new information normally occurs at the end of a sentence. In a
word, both correctness and appropriacy are important in the use or study of a language.
They combine to build up one's communicative competence.
2 Textual connectors
There are various devices for cementing sentences into a text. They are called
textual connectors, which may be divided into three groups: logical connectors,
grammatical connectors and lexical connectors.
1) Logical connectors
By logical connectors we mean the few transitional words or expressions that
indicate the logical sequence between clauses or sentences. The logical relationships
indicated by these expressions include time and space, enumeration and exemplification,
amplification and contrast, inference and summation, cause and effect, etc. Logical
connectors are mostly conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, eg. because, for, therefore,
hence, thus, but, however, nevertheless, though, afterwards, later, then, finally, next, last,
and, besides, furthermore, otherwise, moreover, likewise, similarly, accordingly,
consequently, etc. They may also be realized by prepositional phrases, non-finite or
verbless clauses, and finite clauses, eg. since then, on the right / left, to the east / west,
for example /instance, in other words, on the other hand, on the contrary, for all that, for
that reason, in addition, in the same way, in that case, in brief, in short, in conclusion, as
a result, if so, if not, to sum up, what is more, etc.
The importance of logical connectors is that they make it easy for the reader to
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follow the movement of thinking on the part of the writer, without which a text will be
lacking in cohesion and coherence.
2) Grammatical connectors
Some grammatical devices can also be used to connect sentences. These include
some tense-aspect collocations, pronoun reference and comparative reference,
substitution and ellipsis, as well as the use of parallel constructions.
a) Properly combined, tense-aspect forms can serve as cohesive ties. The past
progressive, for example, is frequently used to supply a background to a new event in
narrative. In some contexts, the past perfective when preceded by the simple past in a
foregoing sentence has the effect of establishing such relationships as cause and effect,
logical or temporal sequence of events. Again, the present perfective can be used to
progress to a definite past, or the simple past repeatedly used to denote events happening
simultaneously or in succession.
b) Pronoun reference plays a very important role in providing textual
cohesion. There are two types of pronoun reference., personal reference and
demonstrative reference. Personal reference is realized by personal pronouns and
possessive determiners which can function as cohesive ties not only between two
sentences but in a broader context as well. Demonstrative reference is realized by
demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners. As cohesive ties, demonstratives
this and these can be freely used both anaphorically and cataphorically, but that and
those are generally restricted to anaphoric use. Only in very limited contexts can
demonstrative that be used cataphorically to express emotional and sarcastic meanings.
In addition to personal and demonstrative pronouns, there are some adverbial
coreference proforms which are commonly used as cohesive ties. Some such pro-forms
as now, then, formerly, previously, meanwhile, afterwards, etc refer to temporal relations
between events, while others such as here, there, elsewhere, thence, etc to the location of
an event in space.
Comparative reference refers to the use of comparative forms of adjectives and
adverbs and of expressions denoting likeness and unlikeness, superiority and inferiority,
similarity and contrast as cohesive ties. These expressions include same, such, equal (ly),
similar (ly), likewise, different (ly), other, else, otherwise, in contrast, by contrast, etc.
c) As has been mentioned before, substitution and ellipsis are both grammatical
devices for avoiding repetition and for achieving textual cohesion. As cohesive ties,
substitution and ellipsis both serve as a link between one sentence and the other that goes
before.
d) Parallel constructions are a kind of rhetorical device that can not only make
a text symmetric and well balanced but play a part in textual cohesion as well. By
parallel construction we mean the repetition of identical grammatical forms or lexical
items to achieve cohesion and coherence in a text.
3) Lexical connectors
By lexical connectors we mean the repetition of key words, and the use of
synonyms, near-synonyms and antonyms as cohesive ties.
a) The repetition of key
words will help achieve emphasis, gain coherence and reinforce an important idea that is
being expressed. Note that repetition of key words does not rule out the possibility of
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using words in different grammatical forms or different words stemming from the same
root.
b) To avoid over-repetition of the same word, we may use synonyms or
near-synonyms as transitions, eg.
I took leave and turned to the ascent of the peak. The ascension / climb was
perfectly easy.
There's a boy climbing that tree. The lad is going to fall if he doesn't take
care.
Sometimes we can use a superordinate in place of a hyponym, eg.
I don't know where to stay in Geneva. I have never been to that place.
We can also use a more general superordinate in place of a hyponym, eg.
-- What shall I do with all this crockery?
-- Leave the stuff there; someone'll come and put it away.
Besides synonyms and near-synonyms, there are antonyms that can
be used as cohesive ties, eg.
Sow virtue and the harvest will be virtue; sow vice and the harvest will be vice.
Good companions help you to sow virtue; evil companions help you to sow vice.
Of course, this is also an example of the repetition of key words.
A good knowledge of the three types of textual connectors mentioned above
is conducive to a better comprehension and presentation of a connected discourse. But
sometimes, especially in colloquial speech, cohesive ties are not explicitly indicated. In
that case, the situation in which the conversation occurs will provide a key to the links of
the text, eg:
A.. That's the telephone. (Can you answer it, please?)
B.. (No, I can't answer it because) I'm in the bath.
C.. O.K. (I'll answer it. )
This shows the importance of situation and textual connectors in the understanding of
connected discourses.
3 Text building -- sentence, sentence group, text
As has been pointed out before, the sentence is the highest rank of grammatical
unit and also the basic linguistic unit of a text. This implies that the study of a text has
gone beyond the realm of grammar and into the field of rhetoric and pragmatics.
When we say that the sentence is the basic linguistic unit of a text, we do not mean
to say that the text is directly composed of individual sentences. In point of fact,
sentences are first organized into sentence groups and sentence groups are organized into
a text. That is to say, between the sentence and the text there is an intermediate textual
unit--the sentence group.
1) What is sentence group
The sentence group is a meaningful unit composed of a group of sentences
organize~ in an orderly sequence. As we know, a sentence is a grammatical unit that can
stand alone and express a relatively complete idea, but the idea expressed by a single
sentence can by no means constitute a "complete thought". If we want to express a more
complicated idea or a "complete thought", we will have to organize a group of sentences
into a larger meaningful unit, that is, the sentence group. Thus, the sentence group is a
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larger meaningful unit than the sentence, and it is a number of such meaningful units that
constitute a text.
It should be noted that a sentence group is not equivalent to a paragraph, which
is normally a larger unit than the former. A short paragraph may consist of only one
sentence group, but a fully developed paragraph is usually composed of several sentence
groups. Could we say, then, that the text is made up of three ranks of components--the
sentence, the sentence group, and the paragraph? This depends on whether a text is
divisible into paragraphs or not. A dialogue, for example, is not divided into paragraphs,
but it comprises sentence groups. A play is divided into acts and acts into scenes, each of
which can be segmented, if need be, into sentence groups, but not into paragraphs. In
some novels, there are chapters that are not divided into paragraphs, but which can be
segmented into sentence groups. And this is also true of ancient Chinese essays. In short,
the paragraph is not necessarily an indispensible part of a text, but the sentence group is,
and a fully developed paragraph is itself a text.
2) From sentence group to text
As components of a text, sentence groups are organized in various ways. But
whatever way a sentence group may be organized, it must focus on a central idea which
is closely related to, not divorced from, the topic of the text.
The sentence groups that make up a text usually represent various logical
relations between themselves. These logical relations combine to expound the theme of
the text.
4 Topic sentence (group) vs supporting sentence (group)
We shall first consider the single-sentence group text and the multi-sentence
group text.
1) Single- and multi- sentence group texts
The text falls into two types: single-sentence group text and multi- sentence
group text. The former consists of only one sentence group and the latter more than one.
2) Topic sentence (group) and supporting sentence (group)
A text, whatever its form, normally has a topic sentence or sentence group
stating its central idea, and the rest of the sentences or sentence groups centering around
the topic sentence (group) to develop or expand the topic of the text are supporting
sentences or supporting sentence groups. The topic sentence (group) usually appears at
the beginning of a text, but sometimes it may be delayed till the end. The key words or
expressions in the topic sentence (group) usually determine the way in which the
supporting sentences or sentence groups are organized so as to make the text as unified
and coherent as a text should be.
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