Download Cardiovascular System

Cardiovascular System
I. Components of the Cardiovascular System
A.
__________________
B.
__________________
C.
__________________
Blood
I. Function of blood
A.
Transportation
1.
Oxygen (From __________ to ___________)
2.
Carbon dioxide (From ____________ to ___________)
3.
Nutrients (From ________________ to __________)
4.
Liquid wastes (From ______________ to ___________________)
5.
Hormones (From _______________ to _____________)
6.
Enzymes
7.
Heat (From ______________ to _____________)
B.
Regulation
1.
pH levels How?
a.
Maintained by the use of ____________, amino acids and proteins.
b.
pH range should be _________________.
Why must pH be regulated?
i. Narrow pH range to ___________________________________.
2.
Body Temperature How?
a.
By controlling _________________________________________________ as
well as to & from the extremities.
b.
Normal temperature range ______°F to _______°F in the blood stream.

maximum 112-114°F

minimum 70-75°F
c.
If temperature gets too high the enzymes start to _____________________
therefore body chemistry stops and you die.
3.
Water content in your cells (viscosity)
a.
Cells are usually _______% water.
C.
Protection
1.
Against toxins, foreign microbes and
substances.
2.
Fluid loss from broken blood vessels __________________.
II. Volume
A.
Males = __________ liters (10-12 pints)
B.
Females = _________ liters (8-10 pints)
III. Composition
A.
______% Plasma
B.
______% Formed elements (cells or solids)
IV. Plasma
A.
_______% water
1.
90% from absorption from diet
2.
10% from metabolism.
B.
________% Proteins
1.
_____________________ (60%) - give viscosity and regulate osmotic pressure.
2.
_____________________ (36%) - includes antibody proteins.
V.
3.
_____________________ (4%) - inactive clotting protein.
C.
1.5% Other solutes (trace)
1.
Nonprotein _____________________________: urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia,
and salts (most of these removed in urine.)
2.
Food substances-_________ acids, __________ acids and _____________
3.
Regulatory substances-___________________ and _________________
4.
Respiratory gases - dissolved oxygen and CO2
a. __________% of CO2 is carried this way
CO2 + H2O —> H2CO3  H+ + HCO35.
__________________ - inorganic salts of plasma.
a.
Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-, PO4-, SO4-, HCO31.
Maintains ________________________, & pH.
Blood Solids -hemopoiesis
A.
Hematocrit
1.
Percentage of blood occupied by cells
a. female normal range
i.
______________________% (average of _______%)
b. male normal range
i.
______________________% (average of ________%)
2.
________________ not enough RBCs or not enough hemoglobin
3.
____________________________ too many RBCs (over 65%) caused by dehydration,
tissue __________________, blood doping in athletes
B.
C.
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells; RBCs)
1.
Function - transport __________________ (98%) and carbon
dioxide (________%)
2.
Structure
a. Biconcave disks to ______________________________
b. RBC is 7.7 microns in diameter
c. ________________ molecules of hemoglobin per RBC.
i. ___________ in hemoglobin is binding site for
CO2 and O2
ii. Each hemoglobin is composed of 4 protein
subunits, each with one __________ group located
in the center
3. RBCs have no _________________ and lack most cellular organelles
a.
RBCs can’t reproduce, only live for ____________________days
4. RBCs are made in the bone marrow at a rate of _______________/sec.
5. Dead RBCs are recycled in _______________ and _________________.
a.
The average male has _________________________ RBCs/mm3, and the
average female has _______________________ RBCs/mm3.
Erythropoeisis
1. Negative feedback system of RBC production (page 324, figure 12.3)
a. Prolonged _________________ deficiency
b. Stimulates kidney and liver to release ______________________.
c. Hormone circulates to _____________________________, which is stimulated to
make more RBC’s.
D.
E.
Leucocytes (White Blood Cells; WBCs)
1.
Function - protection by __________________________ or _________________
production and _______________________ warfare.
2.
Structure
a.
They have ________________ and don’t contain hemoglobin.
b.
_______________________ WBCs/mm3
c.
@ 10-19 microns in diameter depending on type.
3.
Two basic groups of leucocytes:
a.
Granular leucocytes
i.
Finish development in the ______________________________
ii.
Contain small granules and have encapsulated nuclei (see hematopoiesis
figure)
iii.
Phagocytic & release digestive enzymes.
iv.
Three kinds of granular leucocytes:
 ______________________- 60-70% of all WBC-high neutrophil count
indicates an acute infection, especially bacterial.
 __________________________- 2-4% of all WBCs-produces
antihistamine so a high eosinophil count indicates an allergic reaction.
 _______________________- 1% of all WBCs produces heparin,
histamine, and serotonin so it is also involved in the allergic reaction.
b.
Agranular leucocytes
i.
Finish development in the ________________ system.
ii.
Produce ________________ and are phagocytic.
iii.
Two kinds:
 Lymphocytes
1st. Account for 20-25% of all WBCs
2nd. _________________________ produces antibodies
3rd. The _________________ and T-lymphocyte cells are
targeted by HIV.
 Monocytes (macrophages)
4th. High monocyte counts are seen during ________________.
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
1.
_____________________________ platelets/mm3.
2.
2-4 microns in diameter.
3.
Function: initiate blood coagulation (a blood clot). *see coagulation notes.
The Immune Response
I. Nonspecific resistance
A.
This is an _________________ response.
B.
This is a non-specific or general response.
C.
Several types of non specific resistance:
1. ___________________- this includes the skin, mucus membranes, hair, cilia, lacrimal fluid
(tears), saliva, and urine flow.
2. __________________ - sebum, perspiration, lysozyme, hyaluronic acid, and gastric juices.
3. ___________________________________ (a type of chemical defense)
a.
Interferon-3 kinds; stimulates the body cells to produce antiviral proteins.
b.
Complement - forms holes in plasma membranes of microbes, stimulates the
release of histamine, and promotes phagocytosis.
4. ________________________ - Primarily by neutrophils and monocytes.
5. __________________________ -confines & removes microbes at point of damage and
repairs tissue.
6. _________________________ - slows microbial growth & speeds repair.
II. Immunity or Specific Resistance
A.
General Info
1.
Targets specific microbes and proteins (antigens).
a.
B.
An antigen is any substance that _________________________________.
2.
This has a genetic component but ____________________ during your life.
3.
Two kinds: ____________________ and ____________________.
Cellular (T cells activation) Immunity
1. T-lymphocytes are called ______________________ because they finish their development
in the ____________ gland.
2. These cells are specialized for attacking and destroying ___________, _______________,
cancer cells, intracellular viral infections, and __________________________________.
C.
The Process:
1. The process begins when a wandering ______________________ engulfs an ___________.
2. The macrophage presents, on its surface, the partially digested antigen fragments along with
its own MHC proteins.
a. MHC (______________________________________) proteins are specific for each
person and are used to identify tissues.
3. Specific helper T cells interact with both proteins on the surface of the macrophage.
a. Your body’s T cells and B cells have hundreds of different antigens on their surface
so they can recognize many different antigens
4. Those activated T cells are now called ____________________________.
a.
Meanwhile, the macrophage produces interleukin 1 and _______________, which
stimulate the cloning of these specific helper T cells.
5. These clones now differentiates into several forms all with different functions:
a. Memory T cells: remain in circulation and can ______________________________
if it returns again.
b. Helper T cells: ____________________________________ by B cell descendants.
Also secrete interleukin II, which stimulates proliferation of cytotoxic T cells.
c. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells: _______________________ directly by attaching to and
releasing chemicals that bore holes in the invader’s membrane.
i.
They can kill indirectly by releasing chemicals that ___________________
to engulf the antigens.
ii.
In addition, killer T cells also secrete interferon, which prevents
________________. These cells effective against ______________ and
__________________________.
Major
Histocompatibility
Complex (MHC)
antigen
VI. Humoral Immunity (B cells)
A.
General Info:
1. B cells are called B cells because in birds they finish their development in the bursa of
Fabricus, a small pouch of lymphoid tissue found attached to the intestine.
2. These cells do not leave the lymphoid tissue.
B.
Humoral Process:
1. The antigen binds to _______________________ on the surface of the B cell.
2. The B cell ingests, processes, and presents the processed antigen (along with its MHC
antigens).
3. Specific helper T cells recognize and bind to the processed antigen and MHC antigens
4. The ___________________________ produce a factor that stimulates B cells to enlarge,
divide and differentiate into ______________________ and ______________ B cells.
a. Plasma cells then secrete specific ___________________ (at a rate of 2000/sec per
cell) that enter circulation and bind to the surface proteins of the specific antigen.
VII. Vaccines
A. Large numbers of virulent forms are collected and then heat or chemically treated to denature their
nucleic acids. Why?
B. Care must be taken to keep some of the surface proteins intact. Why?
C. Now this mixture (the vaccine) is injected into the person.
D. The person initiates an immune response that will result in the formation of memory cells so next
time they are exposed to the antigens they will combat it faster then it can take hold.
Coagulation (Hemostasis)
I. General Info:
A.
Coagulation time is usually between 5-15
minutes.
B.
Vasospasm occurs to constrict diameter
of damaged blood vessels.
C.
_______________________ released by
platelets causes further vasoconstriction.
II. The coagulation pathway (takes several minutes)
A. The blood vessel lining is damaged.
B. The endothelial cells of the vessel lining and
damaged tissue surrounding the blood vessel
release thromboplastin.
C. In addition, platelets rupture and release
phospholipids.
D. Thromboplastin activates factor VII.
E. Factor VII, Calcium ions and platelet phospholipids combine to form prothrombin activator.
Vitamin K is necessary for the liver to produce prothrombin and other clotting factors.
F. Prothrombin activator combines with calcium ions and converts the inactive protein, Prothrombin,
into its active form, Thrombin.
1. Thrombin causes an increase in the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. What kind of
feedback system is this?
G. Thrombin then combines with calcium ions to catalyze the assembly small inactive, soluble proteins
subunits of fibrinogen into the sticky thread-like protein (fibrin) that forms the clot.
III. Retraction
A.
After the fibrin threads form, they retract or shorten, closing off the injured blood vessel.
B.
Fibrinolysis
1. As soon as the fibrin threads form, the presence of fibrin stimulates the production of
Plasmin.
2. Plasmin is a substance that dissolves clots.
IV. Anticoagulants
A.
Used to prevent blood clotting.
B.
Examples: Heparin and Dicumoral.
V. Hemophilia
A.
Sex linked disease, i.e. gene for disease is located on the “X” sex chromosome.
B.
Several kinds depending on which plasma coagulation factor is missing.
Blood Type
I. General Info
A. Blood type is genetically determined.
B. There are many surface proteins on RBCs, but there are three commonly used for blood typing: “A”,
“B” and Rhesus surface proteins.
1. Surface proteins are called agglutinogens.
2. Antibodies for these surface proteins are called agglutinins.
C. Blood Type A
1.
Has “A” agglutinogens.
2.
Has the capacity to make “B” agglutinins.
3.
Agglutinins are only made when you are exposed to B surface proteins.
a.
Blood donors are only giving blood cells and plasma no antibodies.
D. Blood Type B
1. Has
agglutinogens.
2. Can make
agglutinins.
E. Blood Type AB
1. Has
agglutinogens.
2. Can make
agglutinins.
F. Blood Type O
1. Has
agglutinogens.
2. Can make
agglutinins.
II. Blood Transfusions
A. What blood type can “A” person receive?
B. What blood type can “B” person receive?
C. What blood type can “AB” person receive?
D. What blood type can “O” person receive?
E. What blood type is a universal donor?
F. What blood type is a universal recipient?
III. Rh factor
A. First discovered in Rhesus monkeys.
B. It was another RBC surface protein.
C. What does Rh+ mean?
1. Rh protein present on RBCs.
2. No agglutinins for Rh agglutinogens.
D. What does Rh- mean?
1. Rh protein absent on RBCs.
2. Has the capacity to produce Rh agglutinins
IV. The Problem with Rh factor and Pregnancy
A. Occurs in women that are Rh- and have Rh+ baby.
B. During pregnancy some of the fetal blood cells migrate back into the mother’s circulation.
C.
D.
E.
F.
1. Usually the RBCs and other large blood components are too large to pass through the
placenta.
When the fetal blood mixes with the mothers, the mother starts to make agglutinins for the Rh
agglutinogen.
However, the baby is born before enough agglutinins migrate back into the fetus, so baby is
unaffected.
If the next baby is Rh+, the mother will start producing large numbers of agglutinins and these will
attack the fetal blood, destroying RBCs.
1. If the baby is Rh- it has no proteins to react with the mothers antibodies.
To prevent the problem, when a Rh- mother has a Rh+ baby, they give her a RHO GAM (anti-Rh
gamma 2-globulin agglutinin) shot.
1. This shot tie up the agglutinogens so they cannot be recognized by the mothers immune
system, therefore she does not produce the anti-Rh agglutinins.