Download Chapter 14 Answers to Before You Go On Questions What are the

Chapter 14
Answers to Before You Go On Questions
1. What are the three components of attitudes, according to the ABC model? The three
components of attitude, according to the ABC model, are (1) the affective component (how
we feel toward an object), (2) the behavioural component (how we behave toward an object),
and (3) the cognitive component (what we believe about an object).
2. How do cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory differ in their explanation of
attitude change? Research has clarified that each may be right but one may be more relevant
in particular situations than the other. Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance seems more
applicable to situations in which we behave in ways that are strikingly out of character for us,
whereas Bem’s self-perception theory may be at work in situations where we behave only
slightly out of character or our attitudes are not all that clear to begin with.
3. Why do people sometimes misrepresent their attitudes? Often, people state attitudes that are
socially desirable rather than accurate. A person who privately does not trust people of a
particular ethnic background, for example, may not acknowledge having this attitude for fear
of being judged unfavourably by others.
4. How does social identity theory explain prejudice? Social identity theory emphasizes social
cognitive factors in the onset of prejudice. So it begins with social categorization, in which a
person affiliates with a particular group as a way of figuring out how to act and react in the
world. The next step is social identity, in which the person forms an identity within that
group. This leads to social comparison, in which the group member compares the group
favourably with other groups and in turn derives a sense of positive well-being from looking
at himself or herself as superior in some way.
5. What are the central and peripheral routes to persuasion? The central route to persuasion
emphasizes the content of the message, using factual information and logical arguments to
persuade. This method requires a fair amount of effort on the receiver’s part and is more
commonly used for matters of some significance (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). The peripheral
route relies on more superficial information. When you respond to peripheral appeals, you’re
responding to such factors as how attractive the spokesperson is and how amusing or
engaging the message is (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Decisions based on central routes to
persuasion are more likely to last than decisions based on the peripheral route.
6. How do dispositional and situational attributions differ? Dispositional, or internal,
attributions focus on peoples’ traits as the cause of their behaviour. In contrast, situational, or
external, attributions focus on environmental factors as the cause of behaviour. If you fail an
examination, you might make a dispositional attribution that you failed because you were not
smart enough. On the other hand, you might tell yourself that the test was unfair and that
your neighbour’s music was so loud the night before that you couldn’t get a good night’s
sleep, which are situational attributions.
7. What is the fundamental attribution error? The fundamental attribution error is the tendency
to use dispositional attributions to explain the behaviour of others. When we are almost hit by
a speeding driver, we are likely to conclude that the driver is reckless and irresponsible, even
though, in fact, he or she might have been racing to the hospital to see a stricken child. When
a waiter provides unsatisfactory service, we may assume that he is disorganized, even though
the fault may lie in the restaurant’s kitchen or in the policies of management (Cowley, 2005).
8. What are some exceptions to the actor–observer effect? When we know that just about
everyone would react the same way in a given situation, we will likely conclude that a
person’s behaviour in that situation is situationally caused (Malle, 2006). When most people
are robbed at gunpoint, for example, they (wisely) hand over their money. Thus, a particular
robbery victim’s surrender of money will usually be attributed to the powerful situational
factors. Similarly, if we are given detailed information about situation pressures, we may
attribute the behaviour of other people to situational factors.
9. What are norms and what is their function in society? Norms are social rules about how
members of a society are expected to act. These conventions (or norms) provide order and
predictability. Some norms are explicit, or stated openly, while others are implicit—these
norms are not openly states, but we are still aware of them. You probably weren’t taught as a
child to face the front of an elevator, for instance, but when’s the last time you stepped into
an elevator where all the passengers had their backs to the doors?
10. What did Solomon Asch’s experiments on conformity reveal? Asch found that when the
responses of the confederates were incorrect, almost 75 percent of the real participants
conformed to the group norm and gave an incorrect response at least once.
11. What is the central difference between the concepts of conformity and obedience? Obedience
involves doing what someone else tells you to do or expects you to do even if you are not
sure it is the right or best thing to do. Conformity involves going along with the group in
situations where there really is no single clear best answer or way to proceed—thus forming
a local social norm.
12. What is groupthink and under what conditions is it most likely to occur? Groupthink is a
form of faulty group decision making that occurs when group members strive for unanimity,
and this goal overrides their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.
There are a number of factors, or conditions, that set the stage for groupthink: (1) strong
similarity in group members’ backgrounds and ideologies, (2) high group cohesiveness, (3)
high perceived threat, (4) elevated stress, (5) insulation from outside influence, and (6) a
directive leader.
13. How does altruistic helping behaviour differ from egoistic helping behaviour? Altruistic
helping behaviour (altruism) is self-sacrificing behaviour carried out for the benefit of others
and not for one’s own advantage. There is a genuine concern for or acting to help others
without an expectation of compensation or reciprocation, or of another social motivation. To
be altruistic, behaviour must be motivated by concern for persons in need, without concern
for oneself. Thus, engaging in self-sacrificing behaviour to avoid a sense of guilt or donating
to charity for tax purposes would not be considered altruistic behaviour. Such acts, which are
motivated by a desire to reduce one’s own personal distress or to receive rewards, are
sometimes called egoistic helping behaviours. When we engage in helping behaviour, our
motives can be entirely altruistic, entirely egoistic, or some combination of the two.
14. How does the presence of other people affect the likelihood that a bystander will intervene on
behalf of someone who needs help? It turns out, in many circumstances, that the more people
present in a situation where help is required, the less likely it is that any one person will give
that help (Fischer et al., 2006). Why is this? When many others are present we are not as
likely to feel the full burden of responsibility—this is called the bystander effect, where we
assume that someone else will help or that help is already on the way.
15. What are some of the biological underpinnings of aggressive behaviour? Twin studies
indicate that identical twins are more likely to share the trait of violent temper than fraternal
twins, suggesting a genetic component (Baker et al., 2007). High levels of the hormone
testosterone have been linked with higher levels of aggression, as have low levels of the
neurotransmitter serotonin. The people most likely to be involved with violent crime are
muscular young men with below-average intelligence, high levels of testosterone, and low
levels of serotonin (Dabbs et al., 2001).
16. What are the three components of Robert Sternberg’s triangular theory of love and how do
they interact in relationships? The triangular theory of love holds that love is composed of
intimacy, passion, and commitment (Sternberg & Weis, 2006; Sternberg, 2004, 1986). Here,
intimacy refers to feelings that promote closeness and connection, passion involves intense
desires for union with the other person, and commitment refers to the decision to maintain
the relationship across time. According to Sternberg, the extent and quality of these three
components determines the nature of a particular loving relationship.
17. What is social neuroscience and what is the “social brain”? There has been so much work to
uncover what happens in the brain when people are thinking and behaving socially that the
field of study has been given a special title, social neuroscience. The combination of brain
regions that operate together when people function socially has also been given a special
name in some circles, the “social brain.” Not surprisingly, several of the brain regions that,
according to brain scans, are active during social cognition and behaviour are particularly
large in the human brain.
18. Which brain regions have been identified as particularly important to our social functioning?
(1) Orbitofrontal cortex—a subregion of the prefrontal cortex that is involved in social
reasoning, reward evaluation, reading other people, and eliciting emotional states. (2)
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex—another region of the prefrontal cortex that plays a key role
in the processing of rewards and punishments, interpreting non-verbal social information,
making social and moral assessments and decisions, and feeling empathy. (3) Insula—a
region of the cortex that is located beneath the frontal cortex that plays a key role in empathy
and in reading others. (4) Amygdala—a brain region that is located in the temporal lobe that
is actively involved in the control of emotions.
19. What are the key features of social anxiety disorder, avoidant personality disorder, and
dependent personality disorder? Social anxiety disorder involves severe, persistent, and
irrational fears of social situations in which embarrassment may occur. Avoidant personality
disorder involves extreme discomfort and inhibition in social relationships. Dependent
personality disorder involves a pervasive, excessive need to be taken care of and a fear of
separation.
20. Describe some of the ways in which individuals with autism show a lack of responsiveness. A
lack of social responsiveness—including extreme aloofness, little interest in other people,
low empathy, and inability to share attention with others—is generally considered the central
feature of autism (Boyd et al., 2011; Constantino, 2011). In addition, individuals with the
disorder typically have severe language and communication problems (for example, failing to
speak, displaying poor language skills, or using odd speech patterns). They may have
problems naming objects, employing a proper tone when talking, or using language for
conversational purposes. Children with the disorder also may be unable to play in a varied,
spontaneous way. They typically fail to include others in their play or to make social
experiences part of their play behaviour. More generally, they often fail to see themselves as
others see them and make no effort to imitate or be like others (Bodfish, 2011).