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APES NDHS Name: _______________________ Per: ________ Date: ____________ Land Formation and Uses Land Formation Layers of the Earth Many geologists believe that as the Earth cooled the and the Four layers of the Earth: 1: is made of the lightest materials - consists of numerous plates with boundaries Chemical makeup of the crust: Oxygen 46.6% Silicon 27.7 Aluminum 8.1 Iron 5.0 Calcium 3.6 Sodium 2.8 Potassium 2.6 Magnesium 2.1 All Others 1.5 2. is much hotter and has the ability to of flowing asphalt) 3&4. – made of Iron and Nickel (speculated) (consistency Geologic Processes: Shifting of the Crust: Pg 110 and 111 - crust is broken up into - location of the boundaries is the site of geologic activity such as (when the plates shift – ) such as Plate boundaries: 1. : move away from each other – create a ridge or trench that may allow magma from the mantle to flow upward 2. : plates ram into one another - may push each other up and form mountains - one plate may be forced in a process called – plate being forced under will eventually the through the crust of the overriding plate and 3. : plates produce of the shifting plates moving through the land begins far below the surface at the focus which is directly beneath the – the point at the top of the earth’s crust – severity is measured on the – each point on the scale is than the point below it Secondary effects of earthquakes 1. 2. 3. property damage deaths landslides – massive erosion 4. 5. tsunamis pollution from destruction of property, etc Volcano Formation: 1. 2. 3. Types of Rock: IMPORTANCE: type of rock determines soil type 1. – from the cooling of magma (lava) Ex: obsidian, granite, pumice 2. – form by the compaction of smaller bits of eroded rock or deposited material Ex limestone, diatomecious earth 3. – rock that is changed because it is in a new environment usually due to subduction – becomes exposed to and rearranges the way the rock is organized Ex: Land Uses: World Land Use: %: Rock, ice, tundra, desert, roads, and urban areas %: Forests %: Permanent Pastures %: Cropland %: Wetlands and Lakes Uses of Land: - living - agriculture - grazing - logging - preservation - recreation Managing Public and Private Lands in USA: % is owned by the federal government Overseen by: ______________________________ - Bureau of Land Management - Fish and Wildlife Services - National Park Services ______________________________ - U.S. Forest Service Issues Of Land Use: Overgrazing Over harvesting of timber Mining Tourism Land Management Techniques in US: development can go where : what types of - : changing areas can raise the taxes on that land and thus prevent or encourage development : - prescribes what can and cannot be done in specific areas 1. : lands set aside to preserve their primeval character and prevents permanent improvements or human habitation - these areas may be managed to prevent overuse issues Ex: Build outhouse and camping sites to limit damage done by people visiting the areas 2. : Yellowstone – first NP - preserve lands to teach people about the natural environment, management of natural resources and knowledge of national history Problems: 3. : to preserve lands and waters for the conservation of fishes, wildlife, and plants of the US - allows for hunting, fishing and observation as long as they fit with fish and wildlife management techniques 4. : intended for multiple uses – hunting, fishing, logging, water use, outdoor recreation – all activities are regulated to maintain the health of the area Soil Soil: More than just dirt Components of Soil: 1) - from - Influences on Erosion: – – steep areas erode faster crack rock - determines the basic of the soil Ex: soil eroded from will be high in and have a Soil eroded from will be higher in or sodium and have a neutral or acidic pH - can take to produce - depends on - Fundamental unit is - negative charge is occupied by ( ) - determines EX: Aluminum rich soils = Magnesium and Iron Silicate soils = - mineral content determines of soil - amount of - Filled with - – air is necessary for the in the soil = , does of large particles = not hold water EX: medium particles = small particles = holds water EX: Size of particles Soil texture is based on the amount of = – page 333 soil = - water moving through soil by percolation is called and is a solution of - if soil is minerals can leach then the nutrients and and the soil become - leaching of nutrients into lower soil levels is called 2) - – return nutrients to soil for plant uptake - broken down by (worms, insects such as beetle larva, beetles, ants, termites) - helps retain - increases - particularly beneficial for helping soils of low porosity - broken down or partially broken down materials are called 3) 4) 5) Other: Plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, mycorrhizae, protozoans Can alter the soil by: - adding - breaking down and decompose materials – tunnels – earthworms – their poop is called - disrupt soil and – burrows and holes (larger animals) - Page 331 Changes in Soil: - continued weathering of parent material – - erosion of soil – - deposition of organic materials – changes pH – alters nutrient uptake by plants Soil Horizons: Layers of Soil from Surface Down: - denoted by the letters . , with some immature soils having none. Most have at least three of these ( ). 1) : top horizon - may not be present - comprised of - normally found in forest soils, where dead leaves and other detritus can build up on a yearly basis 2) : where the organic material is in with the inorganic material - usually darker in color - generally be fertile for plant life 3) : below the A in communities - a result of water becoming acidic as it passes through the O and A horizons and then leaching minerals out of the soil 4) : where the - can be very thick and tightly pored, resulting in that can very effectively impede the flow of water through it. 5) : contains the Types of Soil: 1) :colder climates, lots of precipitation, good drainage, evergreen forests, layer of acidic litter ___________ in O-horizon, no A horizon, low fertility 2) : found in grassland areas - have a relatively rich, dark-colored A horizon zone as a result of the organic matter from the being added from the grass. - fertile nature of these soils makes them excellent media for growing grain crops. __________________ 3) _____________: dry for very long periods of time - deserts, hot dry climates, layer of pebbles on surface, thin A horizon - high calcium carbonate concentration, with layers of clay, silica, salt, and gypsum in the subsurface regions 4) _____________:heavily oxidized soils found in tropical and subtropical rainforest - soils have undergone heavy amounts of weathering and are very low in fertility because water has leached most of the other minerals out of the soil - very thin layer of organic material on the surface – rapid decomposition and nutrient uptake by plants due to temperature and rainfall 5) _____________: temperate deciduous forests – hot summer, cold winter - leaves and detritus litter O-horizon - A-horizon rich with humic materials – decomposition is slower due to colder seasons Soil Chemistry, Conservation and Agricultural Practices Soil Chemistry: Soil particles are charged - bind to ions negative ions – high ________________ _____________________________________ : - plants may to the soil particles - in order to obtain the cations, plants release if they are from The resulting into the water solution and can then be absorbed by the plant. Soil Erosion and Degradation : movement of soil components from one place to another Natural: Most soil erosion is caused by moving water: 1. Sheet erosion – wide flow 2. Rill erosion – fast flowing little rivulets 3. Gully erosion – rivulets joining together cutting deeper and wider channels (gullies) Increasing Rate of Erosion: - – roots hold soil in place Human Impact: Impact of Soil Erosion: for plant growth ditches, boat channels, reservoirs, and lakes. - Sediment laden water is Soil Erosion in the U.S. About 1/3 of nation's original prime topsoil has been washed or blown into streams, lakes and oceans – mostly as the result of over cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation. Soil on cultivated land is eroding 16 times faster than it can form. erosion rate is even faster in heavily farmed areas (Great Plains) Desertification process whereby – and results primarily from human activities. Practices that leave topsoil vulnerable to desertification: 1. overgrazing 2. deforestation without _____________ 3. surface mining without _______________ 4. irrigation techniques 5. _______________ 6. farming on land that has _________________________ 7. ____________________ by farm machinery and cattle hooves Slowing Desertification Plant trees, grasses to anchor soil and hold water Solutions: Soil Conservation Soil Conservation involves reducing soil erosion and restoring soil fertility keep the soil covered with vegetation Soil Conservation Farming Practices: Conventional vs. Conservative Farming land is to make a planting surface. land is usually plowed in the soil to the off and wind erosion and smoothed , left bare during the which run- (minimum-tillage or no-till farming) special tillers without turning , previous crop residues and any cover vegetation special planting machines seeds, fertilizers and weed killers into made in the unplowed soil. Main Benefit: Added Benefits of No-Till Farming saves fuel cuts costs holds more water in the soil Prevents compaction of soil a series of – reduces erosion on steep slopes - converted into that run across the Retains by controlling Good choice for – on plowing and planting crops in the sloped contour of the land. A alternates with another crop (a grass or grass-legume mixture). The __________ that erodes from the They and help prevent the spread of pests and plant diseases. Soybeans and alfalfa help restore soil fertility. ( ) is a form of several crops are or shrubs that provide fruit or fuel wood. The trees provide shade (helps to retain moisture). Trimmings from the trees and shrubs provide mulch (green manure) for the crops. Gully Reclamation, Windbreaks, Land Classification and PAM Reduce Soil Erosion restore sloping bare land on which water runoff quickly creates gullies plant fast growing plants, shrubs, vines and trees to stabilize soil cover the soil with netting, fibers or hydromulch to hold soil in place until plants can be established (shelterbelts) reduce wind erosion long rows of trees - used to sharply reduce erosion of some irrigated fields - can reduce erosion by 70-99% - increases cohesiveness of surface soil particles Maintaining and Restoring Soil Fertility – partially lost by . fertilizer – from plant and animal materials fertilizer -produced from various minerals Three basic types of organic fertilizer: 1. Dung and urine of cattle, horses, poultry and other farm animals improves soil texture, adds organic nitrogen, stimulates beneficial soil bacteria and fungi 2. fresh or growing green vegetation plowed into the soil to increase organic matter and humus available to the next crop weeds, grasses, clover, legumes, alfalfa, soybeans 3. - rich natural fertilizer and soil conditioner - aerates soil - improves its ability to retain water and nutrients - helps prevent erosion - prevents nutrients from being wasted in landfills Plant corn, tobacco or cotton . Following year plant to add nitrogen to the soil (soybeans, oats, rye, barley, sorghum). Also helps reduce crop losses to insects by presenting them with a changing target. Inorganic Fertilizers Advantages: Disadvantages Do not add to the soil (so organic content of soil will decrease) and soil will become . Decreased leads to reduced oxygen content and prevent added fertilizer from being taken up efficiently. Usually supply only Cause near streams. Rainwater leaches especially on sloped land into the groundwater.