Download The following terms are necessary to an analysis of syntax at the AP

Syntax refers to the way words are arranged within sentences. How the writer controls and
manipulates the sentence is a strong determiner of voice and imparts personality to the writing.
Syntax encompasses sentence length, word order, sentence focus, and punctuation.
The following terms are necessary to an analysis of syntax at the AP level
1.
Sentence variety—length and classification
2.
Word order—loose and periodic sentences
3.
Sentences classified by structure: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex
4.
Parallel structure
5.
Repetition of words, phrases, clauses
6.
Omission
7.
The effects achieved by various types of punctuation
1. Sentence Variety
I. Length:
telegraphic (shorter than 5 words in length)
short (approximately 5 words in length)
medium (approximately 18 words in length)
long and involved (30 words or more in length?)
II. Classification:
Declarative sentence: statement
Interrogative sentence: questions
Imperative sentence: commands, requests
Exclamatory sentence: expresses strong feeling
2. Word Order
I. Loose sentence: begins with the main idea (an independent clause) which is followed
by phrases and clauses which elaborate upon the main idea
Example: Susan patiently waited, sitting in her lounge chair, sunglasses shielding her
eyes, head tilting to the side, her book lying open on her lap.
II. Cumulative sentence: places the general idea in the middle of the sentence with
modifying clauses and phrases coming before and after.
Example: With careful thought and extra attention to detail , I wrote out my plan for
being a model teenager, a teen who cared about neatness and reliability.
III. Periodic Sentence: A sentence in which the main idea comes at the end of the
sentence.
Example: Sitting in her lounge chair, sunglasses shielding her eyes, head tilting to the
side, her book lying open on her lap, Susan patiently waited.
IV. Natural order: the subject of a sentence comes before the verb
Example: Oranges grow in California.
V. Inverted order: The verb of a sentence comes before the subject
Example: Up the tree scampered the squirrel.
3. Sentence Structure:
Simple: A simple sentence consists of one independent clause and no subordinate
clauses.
Compound: A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined
together with a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon (;). Usually a conjunctive
adverb is used with a semicolon.
Complex: A complex sentence is a sentence that consists of an independent clause and
one or more subordinate clauses. A complex sentence uses a subordinate conjunction.
Compound-Complex: A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more
independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
Schemes – the arrangements of ideas, words, or phrases that are stylistically
effective; often, schemes help to reinforce the meaning. Syntactical terms are known as
schemes.
Balance – the syntactic structure of each sentence supports its meaning; similar ideas
are expressed in similar grammatical structure. In a balanced sentence, the phrases or
clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g. “He
maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters.”
How does a writer achieve balance?
4. Schemes involving Parallel Structure: repetition of the same grammatical structure in
phrases and clauses. You create parallel structure by using the same grammatical form to
express two or more equal, or parallel, ideas. For example, you pair a noun with a noun, a phrase
with a phrase, a clause with a clause, or an infinitive with an infinitive.
I. Parallelism of words:
He loved swimming, running, and playing tennis.
Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics sessions benefit a person's
heart and lungs, muscles and nerves, and joints and cartilage.
II. Parallelism of phrases: Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics
sessions help a person breathe more effectively, move with less discomfort and avoid
injury.
III. Parallelism of clauses: Exercise physiologist argue that body pump aerobics is
the most efficient exercise class, that body pump participants show greater gains in
stamina than participants in comparable exercise programs, and that body-pump
aerobics is less expensive in terms of equipment and training needed to lead or take
classes.
Antithesis: a type of parallelism used to show contrast. With antithesis, a writer tries to
point out to the reader differences between two juxtaposed ideas rather than similarities.
Antithesis of words: Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the
pursuit of justice is no virtue. Barry Goldwater. to sink or swim.”
Antithesis of phrases: – "To err is human, to forgive divine."
“It was the wretchedness of slavery and the blessedness of freedom."
Antithesis of clauses -“It was the best of times; it was the worst of times."
"Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more."
5. Schemes involving Repetition: a scheme in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than
one to enhance rhythm and create emphasis.
I. Anaphora (uh-NA-fuh-ruh): repetition of the same group of words at the beginning of
successive clauses:
~“We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in
the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.” (Winston Churchill)
~ “I gave her cakes, and I gave her ale, I gave her sack and sherry.”
II. Epistrophe (e-PIS-truh-fee) is repetition of the same group of words at the end of a clause,
sentence, or verse:
~“When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child”
~“What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny compared to what lies within us.”
III. Chiasmus(Key - ah-mus) (essentially the same thing as Antimetabole) is a repetition of words,
in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. Very similar to an antithesis. Examples are:
~ “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” (John F.
Kennedy)
~“Fair is foul and foul is fair.”
~When the going gets tough, the tough get going.
~You can take the kid out of the country, but you can't take the country out of the kid.
IV. Anadiplosis (a-nuh-duh-PLOH-suhs) - the repetition of the last word (or phrase) from the
previous line, clause or sentence at the beginning of the next.
~“The love of wicked men converts to fear, that fear to hate, and hate turns one or both to
worthy danger and deserved death.”
V. Polyptoton - repetition using a form of the word.
~“With eager feeding food doth choke the feeder.”
~Here is one from Hitch
“Never steal, cheat, lie, or drinkBut if you must steal, steal away
from bad company.
If you must cheat, cheat death.
If you must lie, lie in the arms of
the one you love.
And if you must drink, drink in
the good times.”
VI. Polysyndenton- It is the repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or
clauses. The repeated use of "nor" or "or" emphasizes alternatives; repeated use of "but" or
"yet" stresses qualifications. Consider the effectiveness of these:
~“We have not power, nor influence, nor money, nor authority; but a willingness to
persevere, and the hope that we shall conquer soon.”
VII. Zeugma (This is not really a scheme but a trope that fits in with the schemes) is the use
of one subject with two (or more) verbs, a verb with two (or more) direct objects that have
different meanings, two (or more) subjects with one verb, and so forth. The main benefit of the
linking is that it shows relationships between ideas and actions more clearly. Examples:
~He stole both her car and her heart that fateful night.
~Fred excelled at sports, Harvey at eating, Tom with girls.
6. Schemes involving Omission:
I. Asyndeton is the deliberate omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, and
related clauses. It is usually before last item in a list—hurried rhythm.
~ “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
~I skated, I shot, I scored, I cheered--what a glorious moment of sport!
II. Ellipsis: omission of word(s) the meaning of which is provided by the overall context
of the passage.
To her consternation, the new student is faster than she. (Complete construction would look
like this: To her consternation, the new student is faster than she is fast.)
7. PUNCTUATION
-Parenthesis-inserting words not syntactically related to the sentence.
Bill (are you listening?) is my best friend.
-Dashes – also inserting words not syntactically related to the sentence.
They show a sudden/abrupt break in thought.
John said it was going to rain--who was I to disagree—before the end of the
game.
These had been her teachers - stern and wild ones - and they had made her strong.
-Colons – They direct the reader’s attention to the words that follow and
emphasize those words.
-Semicolons – They show balance. They balance independent clauses of
equal weight.
What schemes will you be tested on?
Word Order
I. Loose sentence
II. Cumulative sentence
III. Periodic sentence
IV. Natural order
V. Inverted order
Sentence Structure
I. Simple
II. Compound
III. Complex
IV. Compound-Complex
Schemes involving Parallel Structure (be aware of the different types)
Antithesis (be aware of the different types)
Schemes involving Repetition: a scheme in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than
one to enhance rhythm and create emphasis.
I. Anaphora
II. Epistrophe
III. Chiasmus (essentially the same thing as Antimetabole)
IV. Anadiplosis
V. Polyptoton
VI. Polysyndenton
VII. Zeugma
Schemes of Omission
I. Asyndeton
II. Elliptical Construction